Any system means a complex and interconnected set of elements interconnected in a certain way. The economy functions and develops according to economic laws, different from those that ensure the development of other forms of social activity - politics, culture, law, etc. There are several approaches to interpreting the concept of an economic system:
The system-wide function of the economic system, independent of its specific characteristics and features, is to create and improve economic conditions to ensure the material viability of society and its subjects.
This function is logically complemented by a number of other functions of economic systems.
The most important of them:
There are two conditions that are common to any economic systems. This is an unlimited development of needs and limited resources for the real satisfaction of certain needs.
The concept of "system" means a complex and interconnected set of certain elements, and since the elements of an economic system are themselves complex, they are called subsystems. To live, you need to produce, and production requires certain forces. The productive forces are the first, one of the main subsystems of the economic system. Productive forces are a set of personal and material factors used to produce the material conditions of society - goods and services.
The productive forces include:
Creating various benefits in the sphere of production on the basis of certain productive forces, people cannot but interact with each other. The totality of relations between people regarding the use of available resources for the effective reproduction of the material conditions of society - this is economic relations - another subsystem of the economic system.
There are three main components in the structure of economic relations. Firstly, these are relations of production - relations between people regarding the direct production and appropriation of the benefits they create. Secondly, organizational and economic relations, which are relations that connect and organize the economy into a single whole through management. Thirdly, technical and economic relations, which are understood as relations between people regarding the more rational and efficient use of available technical and economic resources.
In addition to the subsystems “productive forces” and “economic relations” discussed above, the structure of the economic system also includes the subsystem of “driving forces”. Under the driving forces of the economic system is understood the totality of those forces and factors that, interacting, act as causative agents of formation and engines of development.
The main elements of this subsystem are needs, interests and rivalry (competition).
The subjects of the economic system are the participants who function in this system, whose needs, interests and goals are realized in it. But the main subject groups in modern theory are enterprises (firms), households, and the state.
Mankind in its difficult history has already experienced quite a lot of different economic systems. This gives grounds to raise the question of their classification.
One of the classifications connects the allocation of types of economic systems with the dominant form of management. With this approach, the following stand out: an economic system with a natural form of management; economic system with a commodity form of management.
According to the criterion of the main form of ownership, economic systems are distinguished: communal type; private property type; cooperative public type; mixed.
According to the criterion of the mechanism (method) for coordinating the actions of economic entities, the following types of economic systems can be distinguished: traditional; market; planned.
The prevailing method of income distribution as a criteria approach to economic systems makes it possible to single out the following types: community-leveling; with the distribution of income by land; with the distribution of income by factors of production (by land, by capital, by labor); with distribution by quantity, quality and efficiency of the labor contribution.
The boundary and type of state intervention in the economy as a criterion distinguishes the following types of economic systems: free, liberal; administrative-command; economically regulated; mixed.
According to the criterion of the degree of involvement in world economic relations and relations, economic systems are divided into: closed; open.
According to the criterion of the degree of maturity, economic systems can be divided into: emerging; mature, developed; degrading.
In the modern economic literature of the West, especially in the popular textbooks of K.R. McConnell and S.L. Brew, the classification boils down to a distinction between three main types of economic systems:
The traditional economic system is usually understood as an economy based on traditions and customs, fixed in the economic consciousness of people based on the experience of generations. This is, as a rule, the economy of subsistence farming, serving itself at the expense of its own resources and forces, which has a closed character.
The market type of economy is interpreted as an economic system in which, on the basis of private property, the movement of production resources and production itself is carried out under the influence of a market regulation mechanism based on fluctuations in demand, supply and prices, as well as on economic benefits.
A planned (command) economy is defined as a type of economy in which public property dominates, commodity-money relations are formal, and the movement of production resources and production itself is determined by the administrative center based on a system of plans and commands.
Modern economic thought distinguishes another type of economy - a mixed economy. It is characterized by the stable presence of elements of different types of economic systems. It is this type of economy that represents a number of modern Western European countries. This type has objective prerequisites. So, only one market mechanism in modern life does not provide effective and sustainable self-regulation of the economic system, but leads to a certain deregulation of the economy (crises, unemployment, inflation). The way out is found in a certain integration of regulatory mechanisms - market and state.
A mixed economy can be considered a special type of economic system. This is due to its integrity, stability, ability to self-renewal, certain compatibility of the system components. And all these properties are inherent in any type of economic system. But in reality one has to distinguish between the mixed economy of developed countries and the mixed economy of developing countries. These are types of mixed economy.
Another type of market type of economy is now called the social market economy - this is a type of economic system in which market economic relations and a coordination mechanism are combined with an active solution to the problems of social partnership.
Each type of economic system, being implemented in specific conditions, acquires its own characteristics. This is how modern models of economic systems are formed and differ.
The appearance of models is most likely due to different "soil" - the historical and geographical environment on which the model of the economy grows and develops. In other words, models in the economy are a manifestation of different options for the economic development of a given type of system.
Basic concepts of the topic
driving forces of the economic system. Industrial and post-industrial society. Classic capitalism. Criteria for the typology of economic systems. Models of economic systems. Socio-economic formation. Subsystems of the economic system. productive forces. Relations of production. Properties of economic systems. Socio-economic structure. Mixed economy. Economic system. Types of economic systems. Functions of economic systems. economic interests. Economic relations. economic needs. Economic problems of society. Economic contradictions.
test questions
PLAN:
1. The concept of an economic system
2. Structure of the economic system
3 Types of economic systems
3.1. Traditional system
3.2. Command-administrative system
3.3. market system
3.4. mixed system
Literature.
1. THE CONCEPT OF AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM.
The use of the concept of a system has a long history dating back to antiquity. Translated from Greek, "system" means a whole, consisting of parts interconnected and forming an integrity.
In each of the branches and spheres of the economy, in the process of human activity, in the process of production, material and spiritual benefits are created. Therefore, the totality of all types of economic activities of people in the process of their interaction, aimed at the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods and services, as well as the regulation of such activities in accordance with the purpose of society, is called an economic system.
Today, neither in Russian, nor in Belarusian, nor in foreign literature there is a single definition of the concept of an economic system.
As a rule, the authors point to the existence of a certain set of mechanisms and institutions that ensure the functioning of production, the distribution of income and consumption within certain territorial limits. Sometimes the definition includes a wider range of factors that determine the economic behavior of participants (laws and rules, traditions and beliefs, positions and assessments).
Thus, we can conclude that the economic system is a complex multidimensional formation that has the integrity and unity of all its constituent parts (elements).
In principle, the term "economic system" is applied at different levels of analysis. In this sense, the simplest formations (for example, individual households or business entities) can be considered an economic system, but most often this term is used in the framework of the macroeconomic approach, when the patterns of functioning of the national economy as a whole are considered.
The reason for the existence of the economic system is the so-called universal law, the relative scarcity of resources. The operation of the law of limitation is based on 2 circumstances: a) the constant growth of human needs; b) limited material goods and services necessary to satisfy them.
The economic system functions through such economic institutions as property, the monetary system, workers' organizations, government agencies, corporations, taxes, money, income, and so on.
To characterize any system, its elements are usually distinguished.
The main elements of the economic system are:
Socio-economic relations based on the forms of ownership of economic resources and results of economic activity that have developed in each economic system;
Organizational forms of economic activity;
economic mechanism.
2. STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM.
An important property of an economic system is the presence of a structure.
The economic system of society consists of small economic systems - households and enterprises.
A household is a small system that represents resource owners and consumers within a family. The main function of the household is the consumption of final products and services produced by enterprises.
An enterprise is a small system within which economic goods and services are created with the help of a set of necessary resources. Groups of related enterprises are combined into industries.
An industry is a larger system that unites all enterprises that produce certain products. Industries are combined into larger systems - intersectoral.
In addition, the economic system of a society may include other elements: ~ socio-economic systems (economic-political, economic-demographic, natural-economic systems);
~ technical and economic system (sectoral, intersectoral, regional systems).
All systems serve each other, are united by a single structure of social organization and management, are interconnected through product exchange, and are in constant interaction.
The structure of the economic system acts as an internal organization of social production. Therefore, at different levels it always manifests itself through people, their production activities.
3. TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS.
Humanity has gone through a long historical path of development, during which several types of economic systems have developed at different stages:
Traditional
Command-administrative
mixed
Market.
The criteria for their separation are, first of all, the form of ownership and the type of coordinating mechanism (plan or market).
3.1. TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM.
The traditional economic system is the oldest system.
For example, if a tribe has grown, say, barley for several generations, then it will continue to do the same. Questions like:
Is it profitable?
What else is worth growing?
Which way of organizing production is more rational? - it just doesn't come to anyone's mind.
Of course, traditions also change over time, but very slowly and only due to significant changes in the external conditions of the life of a tribe or nationality. With the stability of these conditions, the traditions of economic life can be preserved for a very long time. There is no need to look far for an example: elements of the traditional economic system are still present in the organization of the life of the peoples of the North of Russia.
As for the ownership of economic resources, in the traditional system it was most often collective, that is, hunting grounds, arable land and meadows belonged to the tribe or community.
Over time, the main elements of the traditional economic system ceased to suit humanity. Life has shown that the factors of production are used more efficiently if they are owned by individuals or families, and not if they are collectively owned. In none of the richest countries in the world is collective property the foundation of society. But in many of the world's poorest countries, remnants of such property have survived. And this is no coincidence.
Having built its agriculture on collective property, the USSR could not for 70 years of the 20th century. achieve food abundance. Moreover, by the beginning of the 1980s, the food situation had become so bad that the CPSU was forced to adopt a special “Food Program”, which, however, was also not implemented, although huge amounts of money were spent on the development of the agricultural sector.
On the contrary, the agriculture of European countries, the USA and Canada, based on private ownership of land and capital, has succeeded in solving the problem of creating food abundance. And so successfully that the farmers of these countries were able to export a large share of their products to other regions of the world.
Introduction
Chapter 1 Concept and structure of economic systems
Concept and structure
Chapter 2 Main types of economic systems
2.1 Market system
2.2 Traditional economic system
2.3 Mixed economic system
Chapter 3 National models of economic organization
3.1 Japanese model
3.2 Chinese model
3.3 Swedish model
3.4 American model
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The economic system is a set of interconnected and in a certain way ordered elements of the economy that form the economic structure of society. Correct and scientifically substantiated discovery of the patterns of functioning of the economic system has always been of crucial importance.
Objectively existing economic systems are reflected in theoretical economic systems. In Soviet economic literature, the most famous researchers of the economic system of society were Gerasimov N.V., K. Marx., J. Kornai., Chernyakov V.K. In the modern term of economic science, emphasis is placed on a systematic understanding of the economy. The main problem of the modern period, the formation of scientific economic systems in domestic economic science, can be considered the problem of combining universal ones developed by world economic thought with the need to reflect a complex picture of modern economic reality.
As you know, one of the most important scientific methods is a systematic approach, which can be fully applied in the study of economic processes, phenomena in their complex interrelation and interdependence. In the most general sense, the term "system" (from the Greek "systema" - a whole made up of parts) means a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming a certain integrity, unity.
Thus, we can conclude that the economic system is a complex multidimensional formation that has the integrity and unity of all its constituent parts (elements).
Chapter 1 The concept and structure of the economic system of society.
1.1 Concept and structure
In each country, under the influence of many circumstances, its own system of coordination develops, and it is impossible to find completely identical economic systems. If we try to make some generalizations and make a classification of economic systems, then the main distinguishing feature will be the ratio of market and state regulation that has developed in the economy of a particular country. The market and the state are the main two forces that carry out regulatory functions in the economy. In different countries and in different historical periods, the ratio between them developed differently.
The economic system has special properties. On the one hand, it can be considered as an open system, since it contains, for example, the exchange of world experience, general patterns of development of production, there is a change of models; and on the other hand, the economic system is a closed system, since it is focused primarily on the reproduction of this type of civilization, it is very difficult to use a model developed in one economic system for another economic system 1 .
The economic system has a structure that has developed in a certain way, which can also be attributed to its special property.
The economic system of a society includes small economic systems such as households and businesses.
In addition, the economic system of a society may contain elements of both socio-economic systems and technical and economic systems. All systems are closely interconnected with each other, have a single structure of social organization and management, and are in the process of constant interaction.
The functions that the economic system performs include the following:
– creation of material resources for society;
- implementation of the interaction of society with nature;
- acts as a self-regulating subsystem of social life, creating the necessary prerequisites and conditions for various aspects of life.
The versatility of the economic system makes it possible to define it: the economic system is a set of mechanisms and institutions that relate to production, income; it is a specially ordered system of relations between producers and consumers of material and non-material goods and services; a set of economic phenomena and processes taking place in society on the basis of property relations and organizational and legal forms of management operating in it.
Thus, the economic system is an integral part of society, which, in addition to economic relations, includes political, ideological, socio-cultural, legal and other relations.
Chapter 2 Main types of economic systems
Different economic systems of the world differ among themselves in their ideologies, as well as in their approach to solving the problem of the economy. The fundamental differences are: a) between private and public ownership of resources and b) between the use of the market system and central planning as a coordinating mechanism. It is necessary to distinguish the following economic systems: pure capitalism, command economy, authoritarian capitalism, market socialism, traditional economy. The goal of the economists of any country is to achieve such a combination of capitalism and socialism that will ensure the viability and proper efficiency of the economy of this country within its historical and cultural traditions. In reality, economic systems sit somewhere between market and command economies. In order to better understand how the modern economy has developed, how mankind has learned to find answers to its main questions, it is useful to look back and analyze the thousand-year history of the development of the economic systems of civilization. Depending on the method of solving primary economic problems and the type of ownership of economic resources, we can distinguish four main types of economic systems: 1) traditional; 2) market (capitalism); 3) mixed.
2.1 Traditional economic system
traditional economic system. The traditional economic system is the oldest system. For example, if a tribe has been growing, say, barley for several generations, then it will continue to be inclined to do the same. Questions like: Is it profitable? What else is worth growing? Which way of organizing production is more rational? - in this place just do not come to anyone's mind. Of course, traditions also change over time, but very slowly and only due to significant changes in the external conditions of the life of a tribe or nationality. With the stability of these conditions, the traditions of economic life can be preserved for a very long time. In the Russian Federation, for example, to this day, elements of the traditional economic system can be found in the organization of the life of the peoples of the North. As for the ownership of economic resources, in the traditional system it was most often collective, that is, hunting grounds, arable land and meadows belonged to the tribe or community. Over time, the main elements of the traditional economic system ceased to suit humanity. Life has shown that the factors of production are used more efficiently if they are owned by individuals or families, rather than collectively owned. In none of the richest countries in the world is collective property the foundation of society. But in many of the world's poorest countries, remnants of such property have survived. And this is no coincidence. For example, the rapid development of agriculture in the Russian Federation took place only at the beginning of the 20th century, when the reorganizations of P. A. Stolypin destroyed the collective (communal) ownership of land, which was replaced by land ownership by individual families. Then came to power in 1917. the communists actually restored communal land ownership, declaring the land "public property". Having built its agriculture on collective property, the USSR could not for 70 years of the 20th century. achieve food abundance. Moreover, by the beginning of the 1980s, the food situation had become so bad that the CPSU was forced to adopt a special "Food Program", which, although in general, was also not implemented, although huge amounts of money were spent on the development of the agricultural sector. On the contrary, the agriculture of European countries, the United States (s) of America and Canada, based on private ownership of land and capital, has succeeded in solving the problem of creating food abundance. And so successfully that the farmers of these countries were able to export a large share of their products to other regions of the world. Practice has shown that markets and firms are better at solving the problem of distributing limited resources and increasing production volumes, vital goods, than councils of elders - the bodies that made fundamental economic decisions in the traditional system. That is why the traditional economic system eventually ceased to be the basis for organizing people's lives in most countries of the world. Its elements have receded into the background and survived only in fragments in the form of various customs and traditions of secondary importance. In most countries of the world, other ways of organizing the economic cooperation of people play a leading role.
2.2 Market economic system
MARKET ECONOMY - an economic system in which the market plays the role of the main regulator of economic relations. In this system, the distribution of resources and the formation of proportions that satisfy social needs are carried out with the help of market mechanisms. They capture the movement of supply and demand through a system of prices and profits. The market movement of consumer goods and services and the corresponding overflow of resources form, in general, the economic turnover of any market economy.
The essential prerequisites for a market economy are the social division of labor, the market exchange of labor products, private property, the economic freedom of business entities, their economic and legal independence and responsibility, the legal system that legislates the "rules of the game" in the market.
Being a common economic system, the market economy develops according to the same laws for all countries. Their universality determines the general nature of the market economy, which is manifested in the generality of not only the prerequisites, but also its functions and mechanisms at all stages of development. At the same time, depending on the specific historical conditions of each country, these general patterns are realized in various country models of a market economy.
The totality of regulatory functions carried out by the market makes the market economy a self-regulating, self-adjusting system. This system is inherent in the ability to automatically link private and public interests. This gives it the necessary flexibility and dynamism.
The development of a market economy faces a number of contradictions. The main ones include the inability of market mechanisms to satisfy. Many potential social needs that arise in the course of the development of society, the cyclical nature of economic development, the strengthening of socio-economic differentiation, the growth of monopolistic tendencies, etc. The market economic system is not able to fully take into account and satisfy public or collective needs for social benefits: in health care, education , culture, communications, environmental protection, etc. Many elements of industrial and social infrastructure cannot be created and function on an individual-private market basis: highways and railways, various public buildings, etc. Permission or, at least, mitigation of such contradictions is the state economic and social regulation. State social, innovation, antimonopoly and other forms of policy are aimed at this in industrialized countries.
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According to the passport of the specialty 08.00.12, the candidate's minimum program consists of four sections: accounting and economic analysis (divided into 2 sections in the program), control and audit of financial and economic activities and statistics.
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Introduction
Chapter 1 The concept, essence and structure of the economic system of society Classification of economic systems
1.1 The concept, essence and structure of the economic system of society
1.2 Types of economic systems
1.3 Classification of the economic system of society
Chapter 2 Crises in the development of socio-economic systems of society
2.1 General concepts of crises
2.2 Typology of crises
2.3 Cycles of social reproduction and their role in the occurrence of economic crises
2.4 Main theories of economic crises
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
Relevance. In conditions of limited economic resources, and, consequently, production possibilities, limitless needs, society needs to choose and decide what to produce, what to refuse, where, in which productions to direct economic resources, how much and how to produce, how to distribute also quantitatively limited produced goods . The society should work out some procedure for resolving these issues. Only if there is a mechanism for coordinating, coordinating the economic activities of individuals, enterprises, organizations, fruitful economic cooperation between members of society can be achieved.
Thus, the economic system can be defined as a set of ordered elements of the economy that are closely interconnected and form the economic structure of society.
Each system has a national model of economic organization. This fact is determined by different levels of economic development, social and national conditions that exist in countries.
Therefore, the chosen topic of the test work has a high degree of relevance.
The purpose of the study is to reveal the concept of "economic system", determine the types of economic systems, as well as review existing national models of farm organization.
Research objectives:
1. Expand the concept and essence of the economic system.
2. Determine the main types of economic systems.
3. Consider crises in the economic system of society.
The object of research is the economic system of society. The subject of the study is the concept and structure of the economic system of society.
The structure of the work: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
The theoretical basis for writing the work was scientific, educational and special literature on economic theory.
Chapter 1 The concept and structure of the economic system of society. Classification of economic systems
1.1 The concept, essence and structure of economic systems
In each country, under the influence of many circumstances, its own system of coordination develops, and it is impossible to find completely identical economic systems. If we try to make some generalizations and make a classification of economic systems, then the main distinguishing feature will be the ratio of market and state regulation that has developed in the economy of a particular country. The market and the state are the main two forces that carry out regulatory functions in the economy. In different countries and in different historical periods, the ratio between them developed differently.
The economic system has special properties. On the one hand, it can be considered as an open system, since it contains, for example, the exchange of world experience, general patterns of development of production, there is a change of models; and on the other hand, the economic system is a closed system, since it is focused primarily on the reproduction of this type of civilization, it is very difficult to use a model developed in one economic system for another economic system.
The economic system has a structure that has developed in a certain way, which can also be attributed to its special property.
The economic system of a society includes small economic systems such as households and businesses.
In addition, the economic system of a society may contain elements of both socio-economic systems and technical and economic systems. All systems are closely interconnected with each other, have a single structure of social organization and management, and are in the process of constant interaction.
The functions that the economic system performs include the following:
– creation of material resources for society;
- implementation of the interaction of society with nature;
- acts as a self-regulating subsystem of social life, creating the necessary prerequisites and conditions for various aspects of life.
The versatility of the economic system makes it possible to define it: the economic system is a set of mechanisms and institutions that relate to production, income; it is a specially ordered system of relations between producers and consumers of material and non-material goods and services; a set of economic phenomena and processes taking place in society on the basis of property relations and organizational and legal forms of management operating in it.
Thus, the economic system is an integral part of society, which, in addition to economic relations, includes political, ideological, socio-cultural, legal and other relations.
1.2 Types of economic systems
It is customary to distinguish three types of economic systems: a free or pure market, a mixed economy, and a centrally planned or command economy.
Consider the models taking into account the following features: the predominant form and types of ownership, economic power and methods of its implementation, forms of management, the place and role assigned to the market, the economic role of the state.
A free (pure) market system is a system in which the state exercises the least regulation of economic processes, and the forces of free competition, market self-regulation reach the greatest distribution.
Main characteristics of the free market system:
1. Private property.
The right of non-state, private ownership of economic resources - capital, land, natural resources - is exercised. Moreover, a very significant part of the material resources is privately owned.
2. Free enterprise.
Individuals, their groups, on their own initiative, act as free entrepreneurs who take on the function of organizing economic forces: they mobilize the necessary resources, organize the production itself and the sale of manufactured goods. They fully assume the entire economic risk, which is absolutely inevitable, since no one can know in advance whether it will be possible to sell the product, what the price of its sale will be, whether the proceeds received will cover the costs incurred. Free enterprise is becoming a mass phenomenon, it is it that provides most of the production of the national product.
3. Personal interest.
Economic entities act in accordance with their personal economic interests. The desire to best realize individual interest is the main motive for economic actions. Everyone seeks to maximize his income: the entrepreneur - profit, the employee - wages, the creditor - the interest on the loan, the landowner - rent.
4. "Invisible hand."
Adam Smith suggested that there is a "hand invisible to the world" that directs individual behavior, personal interests to social goals, to the satisfaction of the interests of other economic entities. What is meant by the "invisible hand" is the market, as a coordinating mechanism, with its own elements: demand, supply, price. Demand expresses the intentions of consumers, supply expresses the capabilities and desires of producers, and price is a tool for coordinating their decisions and actions. Through the interaction of these elements, the decisions of producers and consumers are transmitted and coordinated. It is a self-regulating system that does not require external intervention.
5. Free competition.
There is so-called perfect, or free, competition. It presupposes the presence of many independently acting both sellers and buyers of each resource and final product or service. Each of these economic entities by itself is not able to influence the price at which this or that product is sold. As a result, economic power is widely dispersed.
6. Minimal state influence.
State influence on the economy is mainly limited to the protection of private property and the formation of a certain legal environment for the activities of economic entities through laws, decrees, resolutions.
In modern conditions, economic systems like a free market do not exist. The system with the smallest "coordination weight" of the state is designated as a free market system, with the largest - as a centrally planned, or command, approximately with an average - as a mixed one.
Any economic system presupposes a certain level of development of social production, therefore, it is usually characterized in two aspects:
Techno-technological - expresses the relationship "man - nature", i.e. presupposes those relations which are denoted by the category "productive forces";
Socio-economic - expresses relations between people, includes those relations that are designated by the category "relations of production".
The economic system has a complex structure, but at the same time all its constituent elements are subordinate to the whole.
From a practical point of view, it is advisable to single out separate subsystems (for example, the financial system, industry, the agricultural sector, etc.), which have a certain content of their own, but in unity form a new quality of the economic system (the whole is not identical to the simple sum of the properties of individual elements). Between the subsystems there is a system of connections that determine the nature of their subordination (subordination).
In general, the economic system reflects the special structure of society that arises from the practice of managing in specific conditions. It presents economic skills, traditions, the spiritual state of the people, their dominant values and the originality of their understanding of the world. At first glance, this does not imply the existence of identical systems (they are always specific, identical to the culture they reflect), however, one can try to identify some common features, features and properties, build a classification of economic systems.
The development of social production, the openness of economic systems for constant exchange with the external environment contribute to the enrichment of the original with new material, which causes the need for intra-system changes. The result of them may be an updated model of the economy. In economics, the concept of "economic model" is used - a cast from reality, the result of knowledge, to one degree or another corresponding to the original.
In the course of the historical development of human society, several types (models) of economic systems have developed, differing primarily in ways and means of solving the main economic problems (what, how and for whom to produce). More specific distinguishing features by which they can be compared, compared, are:
Dominant forms and types of ownership,
Economic power and how to exercise it,
business forms,
Place and role of the market and market relations,
The nature of state regulation of economic life.
Pure capitalism (market economy) is an economic system, the hallmarks of which are private property, free competition and pricing in the markets based on the laws of supply and demand, the priority of personal selfish interest (the desire to maximize one's income), the minimum level of economic power of individual entities (the impossibility drastically affect the market situation), the minimum degree of state intervention in the economy. This type of economic system is best described by A. Smith, who proclaimed the law of the "invisible hand", i. self-regulation of the market mechanism, when the desire to extract one's own benefit simultaneously leads to ensuring the interests of the whole society. In conclusion, it should be noted that the term "pure capitalism" is conditional, it is used only in theory, in reality there was a capitalism of free competition. Moreover, today “pure capitalism” is even more absurd than “pure socialism”.
Command economy (communism) is an economic system in which opposite principles are implemented: rigid centralization of economic power by the state - the main subject of economic life, including the use of resources at all levels; the behavior of subjects is determined by national goals, the public interest dominates over the private. All resources are owned by the state, are not available for free use and are distributed in a directive way according to plans. As a result, production often acquires an autonomous character, does not meet social needs, technical progress is hampered, and economic stagnation sets in.
A mixed system is an economy in which a combination of some properties of the first and second systems takes place. A mixed system has been formed in many industrialized countries, where an effective market mechanism is complemented by flexible contour state regulation. The role of the state is reduced, first of all, to creating favorable conditions for doing business, improving market infrastructure, providing certain social guarantees for the population, and solving national problems and tasks. In general, this type of economic system makes it possible to combine the advantages of the market mechanism with state regulation, which eliminates market failures and minimizes its negative effects on society.
Traditional economy - this type of economic system should be considered separately, since it takes place in countries defined as underdeveloped. Its most characteristic features are: economic activity is not perceived as a primary value; the individual belongs to his original community; economic power is combined with political power. Almost all questions - what to produce, how, on the basis of what technologies, how to distribute the products produced - all this is determined by the prevailing customs and traditions. The same applies to needs that do not perform a stimulating function here for the development of production. The traditional economy is immune to the achievements of technological progress and is difficult to reform.
Thus, at the moment, humanity has gone through a long historical path of development, during which several types of economic systems have developed at different stages - market, command, mixed, and also traditional. The criteria for their separation are, first of all, the form of ownership and the type of coordinating mechanism (plan or market). Modern analysis shows that a mixed system has become the most attractive for society, allowing to supplement the advantages of the market with a flexible system of state regulation.
In modern conditions in industrialized countries, a mixed economy is increasingly replacing pure capitalism. Its main advantage is that it does not have the extremes inherent in the above two models. The main producers of products and buyers of the conditions of production there are large corporations, so economic power is not dispersed here, but at the same time it is not totalitarian in nature, it is not carried out by administrative and bureaucratic methods. Under such conditions, distribution relations do not suppress exchange relations, but supplement them; ownership of material resources can be public, state, private; the behavior of each subject is motivated by his personal interest, but at the same time, priority goals are also defined in society. The state performs an active function in the economy, there is a system for forecasting, planning and coordinating the activities of the public and private sectors.
The means of evolutionary transition to a mixed system is reform, during which the economy finds itself in a transitional state (transitional economy). It should be noted that the transition from one system to another does not always mean the need to change the form of ownership. For example, by the beginning of the 20th century, the economic model based on market mechanisms and regulated by the free market had exhausted itself. The free market mechanism was replaced by a regulated one: the system of state regulation of the economy arose during the First World War, its dismantling after the war led to a severe economic crisis (1929-1933). J. M. Keynes and his followers realized this and substantiated the need to reform the economy and strengthen the role of the state. F. Roosevelt's course in the USA confirmed their conclusions in practice.
Thus, the form of ownership does not prevent even more drastic changes in the economic course. The transition from one economic model to another is greatly facilitated by the fact that all modern economic systems have a common basis - commodity production, although the systems themselves differ in the level of its development, as well as in the type of economic power and forms of its implementation, and in what place economic power occupies in the value system of a given society. activity.
It is also important that each economic system has special properties that must be taken into account when reforming the economy. On the one hand, it looks like an open system interacting with the external environment (does not prevent the exchange of world experience, the approval of general patterns of production development, allows updating its elements, changing models). On the other hand, being a reflection of the cultural layer of a particular civilization, the economic system is primarily focused on the reproduction of this type of civilization, i.e. appears as a rigid closed system, when the possibilities of using the model developed in one economic system in other systems are limited.
1.3 Classification of economic systems
Variety of economic systems. Economic systems are in constant motion and development. One economic system is replaced by another. As a result of these processes, the natural historical development of society is carried out. It should be noted that there is no consensus among scientists regarding the periodization of the historical development of society. This is due to the fact that scientists use different criteria when characterizing this process.
formational approach. In accordance with the formational approach, the historical development of society is reduced to the change of one socio-economic formation by another, more progressive one. The founders of the formational approach are Marxists. The history of the development of society, according to this approach, consists of five socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and
communist, consisting of two stages: socialism and communism. Each formation is based on a specific mode of production, representing the unity of productive forces and production relations.
Currently, the formational approach does not find a wide range of supporters in the scientific world. This is due to the fact that in a number of countries, primarily in Asia, this classification is generally not applicable to the process of historical development. Moreover, a person with his needs and values remains outside the formational approach. All this leads to the search for new criteria by which it is possible to analyze social development.
Stage approach. This approach arose within the framework of the historical school of one of the trends in economic thought in Germany in the 19th century. In the twentieth century, the theory of stages of economic growth was developed by the American scientist Walter Rostow. In his opinion, society goes through five stages in its development: traditional society (primitive technology, the predominance of agriculture in the economy, the dominance of large landowners); transitional society (centralized state, entrepreneurship); shift stage (industrial revolution); maturity stage (HTP, dominance of the urban population); the stage of mass consumption (the priority role of the service sector, the production of consumer goods). The main factor in the development of society, according to supporters of the theory of stages, are the productive forces. This concept is close in economic content to the theory of K. Marx.
civilizational approach. The name of this approach comes from the Latin word civilis civil, public. The essence of the civilizational approach lies in the fact that the historical movement of society is seen as the development of various stages (cycles) of civilization.
On the basis of a cyclical approach, various kinds of classifications are carried out. Of greatest interest is the theory of the cyclical development of society, the change of civilizations. In accordance with this concept, seven civilizations stand out in social development: the Neolithic, which lasted 30-35 centuries (in Russia, 20-30 centuries); eastern slave-owning - 20-30 centuries in the world (in Russia - 15-16); antique - 12-13 centuries in the world (in Russia 11-12); early feudal - 7 centuries in the world (in Russia - 7 centuries); pre-industrial - 4.5 centuries in the world (in Russia - 2.5); industrial - respectively 2.3 and 1.5 centuries; post-industrial - 1.3 centuries in the world (in Russia - 1.4).
The civilizational approach considers the development of society as a natural, evolutionary process. The focus of the theory under consideration is a person with his constantly growing needs, scientific, economic, cultural values.
Information approach. Modern economic thought (J. Galbraith, R. Aron and others), on the basis of such a criterion as the level of development of technology, distinguishes an industrial, post-industrial, non-industrial (information) society. According to this criterion, the most developed countries represent the information society. The highest level of development of science and technology, the use of information technologies make it possible to ensure not only economic growth, price stability and full employment, but also an effective system of social protection of the population, environmental safety, etc.
organizational approach. The classification of economic systems based on the method of organizing economic activity takes into account the following features:
Form of ownership of factors of production;
Who and how makes the main economic decisions;
Way of coordinating economic activity;
Motives that stimulate the conduct of economic activity. These criteria make it possible to distinguish the following economic systems: traditional economy, planned economy, market economy, transitional economy. Currently, this classification of economic systems is the most common.
Chapter 2 Crises in the development of socio-economic systems of society
2.1 General concepts of crises
The existence of socio-economic systems is a cyclical process, which is characterized by the regularity of the onset and resolution of crises. The socio-economic system, by which we can understand civil society, an economic entity (enterprise), an integrated business structure, has two main trends in existence: functioning and development. Functioning is the maintenance of life, the preservation of functions that determine the integrity of the system and its essential characteristics. Development is the acquisition of a new quality necessary for progressive changes, adaptation to new environmental conditions, which characterizes changes in objects, means of labor and in the person himself. The use of new synthetic materials, the development of microelectronics, robotics, information and biotechnology, the use of electronic technology in combination with machine tools and robots, all this is a source of a significant increase in labor productivity and the quality of manufactured material goods. However, on the other hand, updating the technological basis of social reproduction is one of the reasons that provoke cyclicity, and, consequently, crisis phenomena in the functioning of the system. The economy is never at rest. Prosperity is not infrequently replaced by collapse, national income, employment rates, output growth rates, as well as prices and profits fall. In the end, the bottom point is reached, and the revival begins again. At a higher turn of the unwinding spiral of history, more progressive than the previous stage, crises occur with varying degrees of severity and their possible manifestations.
A crisis is an extreme aggravation of contradictions in a socio-economic system (organization), threatening its vitality in the environment. The crisis can also be understood as a stage in the development of the socio-economic system, necessary to eliminate stresses and imbalances in it. A situation may arise in which the mechanisms associated with the existing system of regulation are unable to change unfavorable market processes, when the contradictions that develop in the depths of important institutional forms that determine the mode of accumulation of material wealth become aggravated. In the course of a crisis, the most important regularities on which the organization of production, the prospects for the profitable use of capital, the distribution of value, and the structure of social demand are based, turn out to be unviable.
2.2 Typology of crises
Crises can be identified by the factors of their manifestation - the most significant indicators, parameters of the functioning of the system, indicating the presence of imbalance, sharp contradictions in it. In contrast to the factor, a symptom of a crisis is an initial sign of an impending problem, an indicator of the most vulnerable parties in the functioning of the system.
The typology of crises includes separate groups of economic, social, organizational, psychological, demographic, environmental, distributed in this way, according to the structure of relations in the socio-economic system, according to the problems of its development. Moreover, different types of crises can be represented as a chain in which the break of one link, i.e. the appearance of a factor of one of the types of crisis, entails the emergence of factors of other types.
Economic crises reflect sharp contradictions in the country's economy or the economic condition of an individual organization. These are crises of overproduction, falling sales, contradictions in the relationship of economic agents of the market, crises of non-payments, loss of competitive advantages and ruin of enterprises.
The main factors of the economic crisis are a reduction in the total volume of industrial production, production capacity, rising inflation, hyperinflation, a decrease in GDP, foreign trade turnover, a fall in securities prices, a collapse in agriculture, a decrease in the innovative activity of enterprises, and an increase in the number of company bankruptcies.
Political crises are characterized by sharp contradictions in the political structure of society, affecting the interests of various social groups, ruling elites, and opposition parties. The factors of political crises are: a sharp decrease in the legitimacy of power, its depreciation in the eyes of citizens, the lack of the ability of the authorities to manage the processes taking place in society, a change in the ruling elite, the resignation of the government, "ministerial leapfrog", a sharp aggravation of social conflicts, acquiring a pronounced political character. An acute political crisis can proceed as: constitutional and legal, associated with the termination or restriction of the country's fundamental law; the crisis of the party system, caused by a split in the parties, the leading social forces; government crisis associated with the limitation or impossibility of state-administrative influence; foreign policy crisis caused by the growth of external threats, wars, the fall of the international prestige of the country.
Social crises arise when contradictions aggravate and the interests of various social groups clash and are often a continuation of economic crises, because the latter are accompanied by such negative social manifestations as a drop in employment, an increase in prices for consumer goods, a decrease in the standard of living of citizens, a reduction in state appropriations for education and healthcare. The main factors of social crises are: a significant decrease in the quality of life of citizens, unemployment, poverty, an increase in the number of serious diseases, a worsening crime situation, brain drain, corruption in society, a complete destruction of the value system, including spiritual ones. A kind of social crisis is a demographic crisis, the negative manifestations of which are the excess of death rates over birth rates, negative migration processes that cause an outflow of qualified specialists, a shortage of productive personnel in the economy, and adverse changes in the sex and age structure of the population.
In the most direct way, social and demographic crises are associated with psychological crises, which are most clearly manifested during periods of great changes in society, in conditions of instability and a fall in the standard of living of people. Factors of a psychological crisis: this is the emergence of neuroses that are becoming widespread, the growth of citizens' dissatisfaction with their social status, emotional emptiness in people, fatigue from change, exacerbation of feelings of insecurity, fear, a massive increase in the number of cardiovascular and other diseases due to increasing stress, deterioration in social -psychological climate in society (in the enterprise team). In business, the psychological crisis manifests itself as a lack of desire among entrepreneurs to invest in business, production, disbelief in the improvement of the situation, the desire to withdraw capital from the country.
In the organizational structure of the socio-economic system, relations associated with structural construction, division and integration of activities, distribution of functions, regulation of the activities of divisions, administrative units, regions, branches, subsidiaries, and representative offices can be aggravated. Organizational crises arise. Their main factors are: stagnation and bureaucratization of structures, more frequent conflicts between departments, managers of different levels of management, confusion, irresponsibility, chaos and loss of control over a number of structural units. As well as the outflow of resources and serious problems in the financial and economic activities of the organization due to the intentional or erroneous actions of some administrators, the imbalance of the overall management system, the decrease in the level of coordination and integration of the activities of different services.
Environmental crises are caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, fires, climate change, floods, and often they are the results of human activity.
Crises can be obvious and easily detected, or they can be subtle and go in a hidden form. The most dangerous crises affect the system as a whole. In such a situation, a string of complex problems is formed, the solution of which depends on the timeliness of their identification and professionalism in the management of an organization, municipality, state.
The causes of the crisis can be: objective ones related to the cyclical development of the system, the needs of modernization, restructuring, the impact of external factors, and subjective reflecting the mistakes of managers in management, shortcomings in the organization of production, imperfection of innovation and investment policy.
The consequences of the crisis are the possible states of the system, situations and problems, which are characterized by: abrupt changes or consistent transformation, renewal of the organization or its destruction, recovery or the emergence of a new crisis. The consequences of the crisis are determined by its nature, type, level of manifestation of negative cyclical factors, the choice of anti-crisis management methods, which can smooth out negative trends, help overcome adverse factors, or, on the contrary, provoke a new crisis.
Anti-crisis management is a set of methods and techniques that make it possible to recognize crises, carry out their prevention, overcome their negative consequences, and smooth out the course of the crisis.
The anti-crisis management technology includes a number of successive steps to implement the mechanism of influencing the system in order to prevent, mitigate and overcome various types of crises. It is important for a crisis management manager to have a systematic vision, to be able to fully embrace a number of interrelated problems that, for example, can lead an organization to bankruptcy, or drastically worsen the social situation of people. Methods of anti-crisis management at the level of state regulation include: the development of normative, legislative acts, the definition of a directed financial and social policy, the promotion of small businesses, the innovative activity of enterprises and the country's competitiveness in the world market. At the level of organization management, crisis management is the development of strategies that allow achieving competitive advantages in the market, taking into account risks; formation of an anti-crisis team of managers and implementation of a program to overcome the crisis; carrying out activities aimed at attracting financial resources to the organization and restructuring accounts payable; timely resolution of conflicts and selection of the optimal personnel policy, reorganization at a difficult stage of bankruptcy.
Professor A.G. Gryaznova in the book "Anti-crisis management" characterizes anti-crisis management as an enterprise management system that has a complex, systemic character. It is aimed at preventing or eliminating adverse events for business through the use of the full potential of modern management, the development and implementation of a special program at the enterprise, which is of a strategic nature, allowing to eliminate temporary difficulties, maintain and increase market positions under any circumstances, relying mainly on its own resources.
2.3 Cycles of social reproduction and their role in the occurrence of economic crises
In the development of socio-economic systems, a significant role is played by the chosen method of production, management, methods of creating material wealth and distributing resources. Therefore, it is so important to study economic crises that affect almost all spheres of society. The collapse of securities on the stock exchange, the ruin of companies, inflation, the fall in the standard of living of the population, open clashes between classes or social groups, conflicts of opposition political forces, the growth of organized crime - these are the factors of one interconnected process, the course of which is often provoked by an economic crisis. Its causes, which seemed to be clear to everyone, are often hidden "pitfalls", the appearance of which is due to the cyclical development of the socio-economic system.
The classical cycle of social reproduction includes four main stages: crisis, depression, recovery, recovery. In Western economic theories 1 the concepts of "expansion" (expansion) and "compression" are often used. The expansion phase is replaced by a contraction phase at the so-called "upper turning point", or "top". In the same way, the contraction phase ends and opens the way for expansion at the "bottom turning point" or "revitalization" point. Thus, there is a successive change of the four phases of the cycle: contraction, revival, expansion, the top of the expansion.
The first phase is a crisis, which can also be characterized as a contraction. There is a reduction in the total volume of industrial production, business activity, falling prices, overstocking, there is a significant increase in the number of bankruptcies, unemployment, as well as a decrease in real incomes of the population, contraction of bank credit, and a decrease in foreign trade turnover. Particularly hard hit are industries supplying the market with means of production, whose consumers can stop buying indefinitely. There is a significant reduction in production capacities in the branches of mechanical engineering, metallurgy, instrument making, and electronics. Industries supplying commodities of daily use may not see a significant reduction in production.
The second phase of the social reproduction cycle is depression. It represents a phase of stagnation in the economy, the adaptation of economic life to new conditions and needs. It is characterized by the uncertain actions of entrepreneurs who do not want to invest significant resources in the business. Capital is flowing abroad. In Western economic science, this phase corresponds to a revival associated with the stabilization of prices and economic conditions. Indicators, as it were, reach the bottom of the decline and begin to slowly rise. The situation is stabilizing, preparing for expansion, the growth of indicators of socio-economic development.
The third phase - recovery, it is characterized by: the growth of investment, prices, production volumes, employment levels, interest rates. The expansion covers industries that supply the means of production. New enterprises are being created, a mass of new products is emerging, prices of securities, interest rates, prices and wages are rising. Economic growth is approaching the highest point of development, accompanied by the intensification of scientific and technical research.
The fourth phase - the rise, or the "peak of expansion" is characterized by a significant increase in all indicators of socio-economic development: GDP, trade turnover, innovative activity of enterprises, the level of technological equipment of the country, competitive advantages of companies in the world market, banking margins, etc. The highest point of prosperity is coming , which again entails compression. The tension in bank balance sheets is growing, commodity stocks are increasing, and aggregate effective demand is gradually declining.
The decline in production begins again, there is a reduction in employment and incomes of the population. The upsurge, which brings the economy to a new level in its progressive development, prepares the basis for a new, periodic crisis. The factors that cause the initial reduction in aggregate demand can be very different: the replacement of worn-out equipment, a decrease in the purchase of raw materials, materials, a drop in demand for certain types of products, an increase in taxes and credit interest, a violation of the law of money circulation, wars, various political events, unforeseen situations. All this can break the existing market equilibrium and give impetus to another economic crisis.
Why does a crisis occur? It is known that there is a gap between the production and consumption of goods. Not without reason the first crisis occurred in England in 1825, where by that time capitalism had become the dominant social system. The volume of factory production increased, but the solvent demand of workers and peasants was extremely low. The modern economy is monetary. There are a number of additional factors that can provoke cyclicity. A vivid example is the default of 1998, when the crisis was the result of a policy of debt borrowing, and the signal for its beginning was the fall in the rates of government securities placed on world markets.
2.4 Main theories of economic crises
Theories explaining cyclicity can be reduced to two large groups: external (external) and internal (internal) theories.
External theories explain the cycle by the influence of external factors: wars, important political events, discoveries of new deposits, the demographic situation, scientific and technical discoveries, innovations, and even bursts of solar activity.
Internal theories focus on the mechanism within the economic system itself that gives impetus to a self-perpetuating business cycle. Expansion, reaching the highest point of flowering, gives rise to contraction, and contraction, reaching the lowest limit, leads to rebirth and activity. For example, if a sharp jump in economic growth began, then within a short period of time a huge amount of new capital goods will be produced. A few years later, these goods, for example, machines, machine tools, equipment, will be worn out. They will begin to be replaced, and this will give an impetus to inflation, and so on.
Most modern economists stand on the positions of synthesizing external and internal theories. In explaining the longest cycles, they give decisive importance to the fluctuations in investment and production of capital goods. The initial cause of unstable and changeable fluctuations in the cycle are external factors, such as: technical innovations, demographic situation, political upheavals, etc. However, the frequency and regularity of cycles depend on internal factors, such as total net investment, output growth rate, employment . Let's say inventions and scientific discoveries do not directly affect the cycle, but their economic use does affect the level of business activity.
Consider a number of economic theories that explain the causes of economic cycles and crises, while setting different priorities.
The point of view of K. Marx is well known, who saw the main cause of cyclicity in the contradiction between the social nature of production and the private nature of the appropriation of its results, since in a capitalist economy material goods are produced by the majority of society, and consumed by a minority.
An alternative to this point of view can be considered the theory of underconsumption (Joan Robinson, Hobson, Foster, Catchings), which explains cyclicality by a lack of consumption. Underconsumption causes overproduction of goods and provokes a crisis. The main way to prevent crises is to stimulate consumption.
Proponents of the theory of overinvestment, on the contrary, believe that the cause of the cycle is overinvestment rather than underinvestment (Hayek, Mises, etc.). The influx of investments accelerates expansion, causing disproportions in the system of the financial and economic mechanism of the system.
Existing theories of disproportionality, or "non-equilibrium" (F. von Hayek) explain crises by the lack of correct proportions between industries, spontaneous actions of entrepreneurs, state intervention in market relations. The "political business cycle" theory is based on the fact that there is an inverse relationship between the unemployment rate and the inflation rate, which is determined by the Phillips curve, i.e., unemployment decreases and prices rise. The ruling party is trying to vary the inflation rate and the unemployment rate by lowering them in order to win in the upcoming elections. After coming to power, the administration tries to reduce the rate of price growth by artificially provoking crisis phenomena, and by the end of its rule, the authorities begin to solve the opposite task - to raise the level of employment. The latter causes prices to rise, but the calculation is made on the fact that by the elections the level of employment will rise, and inflation will not have time to gain full strength.
The relationship between market institutions, the state, the mode of accumulation of goods, the internal mechanism for regulating these complex processes and crises is analyzed in the theories of regulation (M. Aglietta, R. Boyer, A. Bertrand, A. Lipets). Proponents of this scientific direction consider both the internal mechanism of management and external factors: wars, clashes between social groups, existing social forms of the system's functioning. Psychological theories explain the cycle by changing the mood of the masses, influencing investment. Thus, the panic and confusion of the crisis state lead to the stagnation of capital investments, the withdrawal of capital abroad, and a positive attitude in the face of an upturn stimulates the growth of investments.
A significant place among the factors influencing the cyclicity belongs to the trends in the development of scientific and technological progress. Innovation theories explain the cycle by using important innovations in production (Schumpeter, Hansen, Kondratiev). The active part of fixed capital becomes morally obsolete within 10-12 years. This requires its renewal, and further stimulates economic recovery. Economists emphasize the importance of capital formation as the initial phenomenon of the cycle. In a cycle, some economic variables always fluctuate more than others. For example, cycle fluctuations in the food industry can be barely noticeable when a decline in the production of steel, iron, machinery or tractors is obvious. The industries producing durable goods or capital goods show the greatest cyclical fluctuations.
The well-known Russian economist N. D. Kondratiev (1892-1938) considered the cause of long cycles to be radical changes in the technological base of social production, its structural restructuring. Kondratiev made analytical comparisons of a number of economic indicators characterizing the dynamics of the world capitalist economy. Research led him to develop the concept of "long waves" of capitalist reproduction. Summarizing the huge statistical material, Kondratiev proved that along with the well-known small cycles of capitalist reproduction lasting 8-10 years, there are large reproduction cycles - 48-55 years. In them, Kondratiev singled out two phases, or two waves - upward and downward.
The Austrian economist I. Schumpeter, studying business cycles, substantiated the concept that the main driving force behind the long-term fluctuations of the capitalist economy are construction cycles, which have an average duration of 17-18 years. Simon Kuznets and Raymond Goldsmith singled out 20-year construction (reproduction) cycles, the driving forces of which are shifts in the reproductive structure of production. Along with reproduction and construction cycles, small cycles are distinguished, which are explained by the interaction of various monetary factors, the dynamics of fluctuations in the value of inventories at enterprises, and other factors. In general, economists note a reduction in the frequency of cycles due to the acceleration of the renewal of fixed capital under the influence of scientific and technological achievements in the modern world.
The study of the cyclical nature of social reproduction is significant not only for understanding the nature of economic crises, but also for preventing them, mitigating their negative manifestations, predicting fluctuations in investment and production, and developing a strategy for state regulation of the economy. Thus, the decision to invest in any area will become more reasonable and less risky if upward and downward waves are taken into account.
Enterprises, when making decisions regarding investment and production volume, proceed from assumptions about future prospects. If, in their opinion, the next period will bring a depression, they will seek to reduce investment now. On the contrary, if they expect that prices will increase significantly in six months, they will rush today to buy goods, buy equipment and expand construction. The success of managing economic crises depends on the timely and adequate actions of the state apparatus of managers, entrepreneurs and investors.
Conclusion
An ordered set of elements with organization, relative isolation and the ability to perform a number of functions that cannot be performed by its individual elements is a system. To characterize any system, its elements, levels of organization, structure and functions are usually distinguished.
The economy is a complex, multi-level, developing system. The economic system of a society consists of small economic systems - households, individual enterprises, groups of interconnected enterprises, industries and divisions, etc.
Any economic or other system is part of a larger system. For example, an enterprise as an economic system is connected with the activities of the industry as a whole, intersectoral economic systems, with the economic system of society, and the latter, in turn, is connected through international specialization with the economic systems of societies in other countries.
The economic system can be considered and analyzed at different levels: it can be the level of a firm (enterprise), the level of macroeconomics or the world economy. For each level, its characteristic features can be determined, due to the specifics of the functioning of a business entity, production system or subsystem. However, there may be common features that characterize both the economic system as a whole and its individual links. So, a feature of the economy can be whether the economy is open or closed from external influences. If the national economy and its links are actively linked to the system of international economic relations, such an economic system is considered open. An open company is a company participating in labor cooperation, carrying out scientific and technical, commercial or other cooperation with other firms, corporations, etc. If the system is closed on internal resources of production and is limited to internal consumption, there is a closed system. It can be said that the world socialist economic system was closed in relation to the world economy, because cooperation in it was closed within the framework of the system itself.
Thus, the economic system can be defined as a stable set of economic subsystems and elements, the interaction of which ensures the reproduction of the necessary conditions for the life of society. It has a complex structure and includes a variety of economic processes taking place in society, property relations operating in it, organizational forms, institutions and economic resources involved in economic circulation.
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