Gross income is dominated by cash income, representing the amount of money that a household has to cover its expenses. Monetary income is formed from the following sources:
1) wages of household members received upon fulfillment of labor agreements upon employment, as well as bonuses, permanent salary supplements, payments by employers for social and cultural purposes: allowances, payment for transport services, vouchers, etc.;
2) income from entrepreneurial activity in the form of profit, dividends, interest on securities and deposits, rent, etc.;
3) state social payments (transfers) of pensions, allowances and other payments from the budget and off-budget social funds.
4) other receipts (insurance compensation, income from the sale of property, etc.).
The ratio between these three sources changed dramatically: under the conditions of the administrative-command system with state property, the main incomes of households were wages and payments from the budget. With the development of market relations, the role of the second source began to increase. However, even today wages remain the main income. The value of a particular type of source in a particular family is determined by its social composition. Thus, there are households where wages are almost 100% of cash income, for example, a working married family without children. There are households where money income is formed only through state social transfers. For example, retired spouses raising young grandchildren. The structure of household income is influenced by the place of residence - in the city or in the countryside.
In Kazakhstan, cash income from employment in total cash income in 2010 was 81%; of the volume of income from labor activity, income from employment accounted for 70.9%; from self-employment and entrepreneurship – 9.5%; social transfers - 15.5%; property income - 0.7%; financial assistance from relatives and other income - 3.4%.
In addition, household cash incomes are replenished from in-kind receipts (for example, products produced on subsidiary farms or services performed for their own consumption, as well as inventory items received as incentives from employers or the state).
Employment income - wage; all types of incentive pay, salary increments; fees; premiums; payments: from profit, sick leave, severance pay; compensation for medical expenses received from the employer, in cash and in kind.
Income from self-employment- Income from entrepreneurial activities in cash and in kind.
Social transfers– pensions, scholarships, allowances, compensation payments, additional benefits, charitable assistance.
property income– dividends and winnings on shares and other securities; interest on deposits, for the use of amounts provided in the form of debt; winnings on deposits; income from the rental of housing, vehicles, equipment, land.
Sales income- income from the sale of real estate, various products and goods; food products received from a personal farmstead (subsidiary farm); rendered on the side of various services.
Other sources of income- alimony, receipts from relatives and friends.
Disposable cash income- cash income minus mandatory payments and contributions.
Real cash income- cash income, taking into account changes in consumer prices.
- cash income minus mandatory payments and contributions, taking into account changes in consumer prices.
Cash income can be nominal(before taxes and mandatory payments) and disposable(after payment has been made). Real cash income- cash income excluding changes in consumer prices. Calculated by dividing cash income by the consumer price index. Real disposable money income-cash income minus mandatory payments and contributions, excluding changes in consumer prices.
The classification of income is based on different criteria.
1. Depending on the source of income, they are divided into:
Salary and additional payment for labor activity;
Income from business activities; income from valuable
Rent for property transferred for temporary use
Insurance compensation;
Income from the sale of property;
Payments from state monetary funds (budgets, off-budget
cash funds);
2. Depending on the uniformity of income, incomes are distinguished:
Regular (wages, rent, etc.);
Random or one-time (gifts, income from the sale of property)
3. Depending on the reliability of receipts, incomes are distinguished:
Guaranteed (state pensions, state income
loans);
Conditionally guaranteed (wages);
Non-guaranteed (fee, commission).
In Kazakhstan, there is a significant differentiation in terms of average per capita income used for consumption. The ratio of their maximum and minimum values by region per year: in 2005 - 4.8 times, in 2010. - 3.7 times. The differentiation of the subsistence minimum is much less, although it is also quite large - 1.4 times.
The growth of income used for consumption in 2010 amounted to. - 22.5%. However, the cost of living in 2010 increased by 6.5%, that is, the real increase in income used for consumption amounted to 16%.
In 2005, the average monthly nominal cash income per capita amounted to 15.8 thousand tenge, in 2010. - 40.5 thousand tenge, which is 2.5 times higher than in 2005. Real cash income in 2010 increased by 10.2% over the year. The average monthly nominal wage per employee in 2005 amounted to 34.06 tenge, in 2010 to 77.5 thousand tenge, having increased by 14.6% compared to the previous year, and the real one – by 7.0%. The wages of agricultural workers remain constantly low - 41.3% of the national average; for employees of the financial sector, wages exceed the average republican level by 2.0 times; in industry - 1.3 times; Gender differences persist: the average wage for men is 1.3 times higher than for women. The gap across regions is also significant - 3.2 times
Due to the specifics of economic development, there are differences in the level and structure of incomes of urban and rural households, the cash income used for consumption of the urban population is 1.45 times higher than that of the rural population (30.5 thousand tenge against 21.0 thousand tenge). tenge); Poverty is more common in rural areas - the proportion of the population with incomes below the subsistence level, in cities - 3.7%, in rural areas - 10.1%.
In 2005, incomes exceeded the subsistence minimum by an average of 2.6 times, in 2010 - by 3 times.
Considering that labor incomes account for almost three-quarters of all monetary incomes of the population, and more than two-thirds of them are the incomes of employees, it should be recognized that unemployment can play a significant role in the amount of income. Calculations show that between the level of unemployment and poverty of the population relative to the subsistence minimum, there is a noticeable relationship in terms of the correlation coefficient. A 1 percentage point reduction in unemployment results in a 3 percentage point reduction in poverty.
Let's define what income is and what types of income are.
Population income- this is the amount of money and material goods received or produced by households for a certain period of time. The level of consumption of the population directly depends on the level of income.
The income of the population can be divided into monetary and natural.
Cash income- these are incomes that include all the receipts of money in the family budget in the form of wages of employees, income from business activities, pensions, scholarships, various benefits, income from property (interest on deposits, rent, dividends on securities, income from real estate) , fees, etc.
Income in kind are incomes that include products produced by households for their own consumption.
Income can also be classified as:
The main income of workers is wages, which account for up to 70% of the income of workers. Distinguish nominal and real wages.
Nominal wages- these are the funds that the employee receives (or which are accrued to him) in monetary terms for his work for a certain period of time. Nominal wages are fixed in an employment contract (contract) concluded between the employee and the employer.
Real wage reflects the purchasing power of the cash received and represents nominal wages adjusted for the consumer price index. If the rate of increase in nominal wages is lower than the rate of growth in the level of prices for goods and services, then real wages fall. Therefore, when raising nominal wages, it is necessary to take into account the rise in prices, otherwise the increase in wages will not carry a stimulating function.
The distribution of income occurs between the owners of economic factors of production - labor, land, capital, entrepreneurial abilities. However, if employees participate in the profits of the enterprise, then they also receive part of the factor income.
In addition to wages, the monetary income of the population includes business income (profit), property income (interest, dividends, rent), social transfers (pensions, allowances, scholarships) and other income (insurance compensation, winnings, income, received in the order of succession, etc.).
The income structure of the population of the Russian Federation under a planned economy differs significantly from the income structure under market economic conditions. A positive manifestation of a market economy is the growth of income from property and income from entrepreneurial activity, although they are received by a smaller part of the population. During the period of the planned economy of the USSR, there was a high percentage of income from wages and social payments to the population, which testified to the high social protection of workers, but income from property and entrepreneurial activity was extremely small, since under the current legislation, almost all types of such activities were considered illegal.
The ratio of the share of wages and social transfers in the structure of monetary incomes of the population plays an important role in the motivation of workers. If the structure of cash income is dominated by wages or income from entrepreneurial activity, then this indicates an increase in entrepreneurial initiative and economic independence. The trend towards an increase in social transfers in the structure of cash income can lead to a psychology of social dependency among a part of the working population.
Differences in per capita income are called income differentiation. Income inequality is a feature of any economic system. However, with the growth of the level of socio-economic development of the country, the indicators of income differentiation are declining.
In modern Russia, the differentiation of incomes of the population is significantly higher than in economically advanced countries, and tends to further increase. To a large extent, this is due to the fact that many enterprises that were previously city-forming and often the only sources of income for many citizens turned out to be non-competitive and closed. At the same time, a social stratum arose that lives and acts according to the laws of the market, "fits into market relations" and has immeasurably higher incomes. But as more and more sections of the population are involved in market relations, as well as the expansion of state support for socially vulnerable sections of the population, the size of inequality should decrease.
The degree of income inequality is reflected by the Lorenz curve (see figure). The abscissa shows the percentage of households, and the ordinate shows the percentage of total income received. The Lorenz curve is a cumulative distribution of the population and the corresponding incomes.
Lorenz curve: OSA - complete equality; ODA - after taxes; OEA - pre-tax
Absolutely even distribution of income (complete equality) is represented in the figure by one OCA line, which indicates that any percentage of households receives a corresponding percentage of income. The area between the absolute equality line and the Lorenz ODA curve reflects the degree of income inequality. The wider this area, the greater the degree of income inequality.
To overcome social inequality in most countries of the world, proportionally progressive income taxation is used. Until 2001, Russia also had a proportionally progressive income tax. Since 2001, personal income tax (PIT) has been levied at a flat rate of 13%. On the one hand, this, of course, is not bad, since the majority of the country's population is still close to the poverty line, but on the other hand, the abolition of the proportionally progressive tax is contrary to the democratic principle, which says: "Who earns more, pays more."
progressive taxes reduce social inequality in society. This principle of justice, formulated by A. Smith, is clearly demonstrated by the depicted Lorenz curve. The figure shows that proportionally progressive taxes make the distribution of income more even.
In world practice, the following coefficients are used to quantify the level of income inequality:
Course work
in the discipline "Statistics"
« Statistical study of incomes of the population "
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..3
Theoretical part………………………………………………………….. 5
1. The concept of living standards of the population…………………………………...5
2. Population income statistics……………………………………………….5
2.1. Types and sources of income of the population……………………………… 5
2.2. Indicators of income of the population and the indicator
living wage…………………………………………………..6
2.3. Methods for studying the dynamics of real incomes
population………………………………………………………………… 10
2.4. Methods for studying income differentiation and
poverty level………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
Estimated part…………………………………………………………………17
Analytical part………………………………………………………...33
Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 37
List of used literature……………………………………….39
The processes of formation and use of incomes of the population represent the receipt at its disposal of resources in cash and in kind, received through labor activity, the use of property in the form of transfers and their direction to meet personal needs, production goals and accumulation.
In countries with economies in transition, research on the income of the population is extremely relevant. This is due to the fact that in the context of socio-economic transformations affecting all aspects of the life of society, objective information is especially required on the living conditions of the population, solvent consumer demand, the degree of social stratification and the level of poverty, and the cost of social programs.
For countries with a large territory and a federal structure, statistical estimates of the purchasing power of the incomes of the population of the territories are essential for the development of economic policy measures.
Population income statistics are of great importance, first of all, for the analysis of the standard of living and the development of an adequate social and tax policy. However, its significance is not limited to this, as it provides information for studying the impact of household income on other macroeconomic processes, for example, to study the factors that determine the savings rate and influence investment activity in the economy. Thus, income statistics data are necessary for governments that make decisions on a wide range of economic policy issues, as well as for researchers engaged in research in this area.
In the statistical methodology section of this course work, a number of issues related to the analysis of the inequality of income distribution between certain groups of the population will be disclosed and the indicators necessary to assess the differentiation of the population in terms of living standards will be considered.
In the calculation part of the work, we calculate the average per capita income for the households under study, variation indicators, structural characteristics of the distribution series; according to the available data on the distribution of the total volume of monetary incomes of the population of the region, we determine the A. Gini income concentration index and construct the Lorenz curves; we will determine the analytical and average indicators of a series of dynamics, we will construct a graph of the dynamics of the average per capita income of the population; based on the data on the dynamics of incomes of the population of the region, we calculate nominal and disposable cash incomes, as well as the purchasing power indices of the ruble, real disposable incomes and the real wage index.
In the analytical part of the work, we will carry out an automated statistical analysis of the dynamics of the average per capita income of the population of Russia per month for 5 years using the MS Excel spreadsheet application package in the Windows environment.
1. The concept of living standards of the population
The study of the standard of living of the population is one of the main tasks of socio-economic statistics. The definition of the standard of living category is still the subject of discussion among economists and statisticians. The standard of living should characterize the degree to which the various needs of the population are satisfied not only in material goods, but also in non-material services. Therefore, the standard of living can be defined as a complex socio-economic category that reflects the degree to which the population's needs for material goods and non-material services are met, as well as the conditions available in society for the development and satisfaction of these needs.
2. Population income statistics
2.1. Types and sources of income of the population
The central place in the system of indicators of living standards is occupied by indicators of incomes of the population. Income is understood as the amount of money and other benefits received as a result of the distribution of the product produced in society among the owners of production factors. There are the following main types of income of the population:
Income from employment (wages);
Income from personal subsidiary farming;
· pensions, allowances, scholarships, subsidies for vouchers to sanatoriums, rest homes, dispensaries, children's health camps, for the maintenance of children in preschool institutions;
income from other sources, in particular from property and entrepreneurial activities.
The income of the population has both monetary and in-kind form. The vast majority of income comes to the population in the form of money. In-kind income is income from personal subsidiary plots, farmers' income, part of the wage fund, and most of the charitable assistance.
When studying the income of the population, its grouping according to sources of livelihood and income is of great importance. This grouping covers the entire population, regardless of age. The following are the main sources of income:
wages and other payments that employees receive for their work (in cash and in kind) - for example, bonuses, commissions, vacation pay, various allowances, etc.;
income from individual entrepreneurial activity;
· payments and benefits from public consumption funds (transfers - pensions, scholarships, allowances, etc.), special funds, annual life insurance payments;
· income from property (for example, payments for the use of financial assets, buildings, land, copyrights, patents, etc.);
income from personal subsidiary farming, orchard, orchard (the value of net production).
Other sources of income are also possible (winning the lottery, a prize for winning a competition, contest, etc.).
2.2. Indicators of income of the population and the indicator of the subsistence minimum
To measure the level and structure of incomes of the population, a number of indicators are used that characterize them in various aspects.
One of the indicators of income is the volume personal income of the population (LDN)- all types of income of the population received in cash or in kind.
Aggregate (total) income of the population (CDI) are determined by summing up personal incomes and the cost of free and preferential services provided to the population at the expense of social funds.
The total amount of monetary income of the population of Russia in 2005 amounted to 13,667.8 billion rubles. and for the year increased in nominal terms by 1.25 times. Data reflecting the change in their structure for the period from 2000 to 2005. are shown in table 1.
Table 1
The structure of monetary income of the population of Russia
(in % of total)
| Cash income, total |
||||||
| including: |
||||||
| salary |
||||||
| social transfers |
||||||
| property income |
||||||
| business income |
||||||
| other income |
Source: Russian Statistical Yearbook.-M., 2006 - P.173
These indicators, calculated in the prices of the current period, are called nominal income. They do not determine the real content of income, that is, they do not show how much material goods and services are available to the population at the current level of income.
Subtracting taxes, obligatory payments and contributions to public organizations (NP) from personal nominal incomes of the population (LDN), we find personal disposable income (PDI) of the population - that part of personal income that their owners direct to consumption and savings:
JPL = LDN - NP
The share of this part in the total volume will be:
To assess changes over time in the purchasing power of income in aggregate form, we use real income indicators population. Real total income (ROI) of the population are defined as personal disposable income plus the value of free or concessional services to the population from public and non-public sources, adjusted for changes in consumer prices. Real disposable income (RDI) population - personal disposable income adjusted for changes in consumer prices. It reflects the maximum value of goods and services that could be purchased by the population with their current income, based on the prices of the base period, without using their accumulated financial and non-financial assets and without increasing their financial liabilities.
Average per capita cash income The population is calculated by dividing the total amount of money income for the year by the average annual population.
Average per capita nominal cash income of the population of Russia per month, thousand rubles:
Source: Russian statistical yearbook.-M., 2006.-p.171
Practical calculations of nominal and disposable cash income will be presented in the calculation part of the course work (Task 4, p. 28).
In a statistical study of the level and limits of poverty, first of all, an income limit is established that ensures consumption at the minimum allowable level, that is, the cost of the subsistence minimum is determined, with which the actual incomes of individual segments of the population are compared. Living wage represents a cost estimate of the minimum set of food products necessary to preserve human health and maintain his life, as well as the cost of non-food products and services, taxes and mandatory payments, based on the share of costs for these purposes in the budgets of low-income groups of the population; is used as a criterion of poverty in characterizing the processes of socio-economic differentiation.
At present, along with the general subsistence minimum, physiological minimum, which is the total cost of goods and services, which can be considered as a lower limit that allows you to maintain a physical condition, but only for a certain time. The vital level of consumption includes only the cost of food, basic sanitary and hygienic items, medicines, utilities and other obligatory payments. As an indicator of changes in the cost of vital food products per person per month, 19 essential food products are selected, the daily energy value of which is 2236.7 kcal. If the population does not have enough of their income to meet the minimum needs, this means that the country lives below the poverty line.
Information on the dynamics of the subsistence minimum in Russia, the number and share of the population with lower incomes is given in Table 2.
Source: Russian Statistical Yearbook. -M., 2006. - P.171
In 2004, the income deficit in Russia amounted to 225.6 billion rubles. or 2.1% in relation to the total amount of cash income; 25.2 million people or 17.6% of the total population lived below the poverty line. The composition of this group is far from homogeneous, while part of the population (according to an estimate of at least 5%) has incomes below the physiological minimum (among them are the poor, which, according to the methodology of the International Labor Organization (ILO), include persons whose total income is 2 times lower than the subsistence level). minimum).
2.3. Methods for studying the dynamics of real incomes of the population
Not every rate of growth in money income in the presence of inflation in the economy can indicate an improvement in the standard of living of the population.
In order to eliminate the price change factor, which leads to a change in the purchasing power of money, the nominal and disposable money incomes of the population are calculated in real terms, adjusted for consumer price indices (composite and sub-indices for certain commodity groups).
Calculation of indicators in real terms is carried out by dividing the corresponding indicators of the current period by the consumer price index (CPI of the ruble), or by multiplying by the purchasing power of money index (PPI).
Real disposable income (RDI) population are calculated by the formula:
RRD \u003d (LDN - NP) I,
where I= = - index of purchasing power of money
Similarly calculated real total income (ROI) population - as total income (CIT) adjusted for the purchasing power of money:
GENUS \u003d SDN I \u003d.
To characterize the dynamics of these indicators, the corresponding indices are built, for example, real disposable income index :
i== = I I I
Consequently, the rate of change in real disposable income depends on three factors: the growth rate of nominal income, changes in tax rates, and changes in the purchasing power of money.
The change in real disposable money income of the population of Russia is characterized by the following I:
Dynamics of real money incomes of the population of Russia
(in % to the previous year)
Source: Russian Statistical Yearbook. - M., 2006. - P.36
So, in 2000 there was an increase in real incomes, then in 2001 a decrease, in 2002-2003. growth again, and in 2004-2005. decrease again.
Practical calculations of the purchasing power index of the ruble and real disposable income will be presented in the calculation part of the course work (Task 4, p. 29).
2.4. Methods for studying income differentiation and poverty
The basis for measuring the economic differentiation of the population is the analysis of the inequality in the distribution of income between individual groups of the population. To assess the differentiation of the population in terms of living standards, the following indicators are used:
distribution of the population according to the level of average per capita income;
· coefficients of differentiation of incomes of the population;
distribution of the total amount of cash income by various groups of the population;
income concentration coefficient (Gini index);
· population with incomes below the poverty line, poverty rate.
Average income is defined as follows:
X - the middle of the i-th interval of the distribution of the population by income;
The frequency of the i-th interval.
To study the features of population differentiation by income level, structural characteristics of distribution series are used: mode, median, quartiles, deciles, and others.
Modal value of income (Mo) calculated by the formula:
M= x+
i 
, where
X- the lower limit of the modal interval;
i
Median Income (Me) is the level of income that divides the income distribution series into two equal parts: half of the population has a per capita income that does not exceed the median income, the other half has an income that is not less than the median. The calculation of this indicator is determined by the formula:
M= x+
i 
, where
X- the lower limit of the median interval; i S- accumulated frequency of the interval preceding the median; - frequency of the median interval.
Structural characteristics of the income of the population can be given by the following estimates:
Distribution quartiles - divide the entire population into 4 parts equal in volume;
Distribution quintiles - divide the population into 5 equal groups;
Deciles - divide the population into 10 equal parts.
The degree of differentiation of the population in terms of average per capita income is estimated using income differentiation coefficients. There are two indicators of differentiation:
· stock differentiation coefficient ( To f ) is the ratio between the average incomes of the compared groups of the population (usually these are the average incomes received from the 10% of the population with the highest and lowest incomes):
· decile coefficient of income differentiation ( To d ) , which shows how many times the minimum income among the top 10% of the population exceeds the maximum income among the bottom 10% of the population; it is calculated by comparing the ninth and first deciles:
Practical calculations of average income, fashion, median, first and ninth deciles, as well as the decile coefficient of income differentiation will be presented in the calculation part of the course work (Task 1, p. 18).
The tool for analyzing the concentration of incomes of the population is Lorenz curve and calculated on its basis income concentration index (Gini coefficient) .
Lorenz curve establishes a correspondence between the population and the amount of total income received. To build it, the population is divided into groups equal in size and differing in the level of average per capita income. The groups are ranked according to the average per capita income. For each group, the frequencies are determined - the shares in the total population (, where - the population of the group; - the total population) and in the total amount of income (, where - the average income in the group), and on their basis - the accumulated frequencies. With an even distribution of income, 1/10 of the population with the lowest incomes will have 10% of the total income, 1/20 of the population - 20% of the total income, etc. In figure 1, the uniform distribution of income is represented by a straight line connecting the origin A and point C.
The line corresponding to the actual distribution of income deviates from the line of uniform distribution the more, the greater the inequality in income distribution.
Total income
(accumulated frequencies)
Income concentration ratio (Gini coefficient) makes it possible to analyze the degree of concentration of income among various groups of the population and to quantify the unevenness of their distribution.
The Gini coefficient is determined by the formula:
Proportion of the population belonging to the () group in the total population;
The share of income concentrated at i– th population group;
n– number of social groups;
cum y- cumulative (calculated on an accrual basis) share of income.
The Gini coefficient varies from 0 to 1. With a uniform distribution, it tends to zero, and the higher the income polarization in society, the closer it is to one.
The practical calculation of the A. Gini income concentration index, as well as the construction of the Lorentz curve, will be presented in the calculation part of the course work (Task 2, p. 23).
On the basis of data on the incomes of the poor, the following indicators are calculated: average per capita income of the poor, income deficit, poverty rate, poverty depth index, poverty severity index.
income deficit is estimated as the total income of the poor, missing the subsistence level.
The general form of the formula for poverty measures was proposed by Foster, Grier and Thorbecke. The formula looks like this:
, where
P - indicator (measure) of poverty;
a– parameter showing the type of poverty indicator;
Z is the poverty line for the j-th household, defined as the subsistence level of the household on average per capita, calculated taking into account the sex and age composition of the household;
Y - average per capita income of the j-th household with an income level below the subsistence level;
q is the number of poor households;
H is the total number of households;
j is the number of each household.
Using this formula, three indicators of poverty can be determined:
1. Poverty ratio ( R about ) , or the share of poor households in their total number:
;
2. Poverty depth index ( R 1 ) :
;
3. Poverty severity index ( R 2 ) :
.
Based on the materials of a 1% mechanical sample of households in the region, the following data were obtained on the distribution of households by average per capita income:
Table 1
According to the survey, determine:
1. The structure of households by average per capita income.
2. Average per capita income of households.
3. Indicators of variation: variance, standard deviation, coefficient of variation. Assess the quality (homogeneity) of the population.
4. Mode, median, first and ninth deciles.
5. Calculate the decile coefficient of income differentiation.
6. With a probability of 0.954:
a) possible limits of the average per capita income of households in the region;
b) possible limits for the share of households with an income of less than 2,000 rubles.
Draw your own conclusions.
Solution.
1. Determine the structure of households by average per capita income by dividing the number of households in each group by the total number of households in the sample and multiplied by 100%. We put the results in the table:
table 2
Structure of households by average per capita income
The table shows that a large proportion of households in the sample are households with average per capita monetary incomes from 1,000 to 2,000 rubles. per month - almost 60%.
2.3. Let us determine the average per capita income of households in the sample and the variation indicators:
Let's make a calculation table:
Table 3
Estimated values needed to calculate the mean and variance
Average per capitacash income per month |
Number of households |
middleinterval, |
(X-Xav)^2* f |
|||
Up to 1000 |
500 |
|||||
1000-2000 |
1500 |
|||||
2000-3000 |
2500 |
|||||
3000-4000 |
3500 |
|||||
over 4000 |
4500 |
|||||
Total: |
- |
1506840000 |
rub.,
those. the average per capita income in the sample was 1885 rubles.
The variance of a trait is the average square of the deviations of the options from their average value, in our case, the weighted variance for the variation series is:
The standard deviation is equal to the square root of the dispersion: rub.
Let's define the coefficient of variation, %:
The coefficient of variation is used as a characteristic of population homogeneity. The set is considered quantitatively homogeneous if the coefficient of variation does not exceed 33%. In our case, V51.5%, therefore, this set of households is quantitatively heterogeneous.
4. Determine the mode, median, first and ninth deciles using the formulas for the interval series:
M= x+
i 
, where
X- the lower limit of the modal interval (the interval with the highest frequency is called modal);
i is the value of the modal interval;
Modal interval frequency;
The frequency of the interval preceding the modal;
The frequency of the interval following the modal.
The interval with the boundaries of the average per capita income of 1000-2000 rubles in this distribution is modal, since it has the highest frequency. Then the mode is:
Median M:
M= x+
i 
, where
X- the lower limit of the median interval (the median is the first interval, the accumulated frequency of which exceeds half of the total sum of frequencies);
i is the value of the median interval;
S- accumulated frequency of the interval preceding the median;
The frequency of the median interval.
The median is the interval with the boundaries of 1000-2000 rubles:
rub.
To calculate the first and ninth deciles for the interval variation series, formulas are used to calculate the median, only in this case, instead of the median interval, intervals are used in which there are options that cut off 10% of the number of frequencies at different ends of the distribution series.
To calculate the first and ninth deciles, we use the formulas:
,
,
where is the lower limit of the interval containing the first decile (the interval is determined by the accumulated frequency, the first exceeding 10%);
The lower limit of the interval containing the ninth decile (the interval is determined by the accumulated frequency, the first exceeding 90%);
The value of the decile interval;
Accumulated frequency of the interval preceding the interval containing the first decile;
The same for the ninth decile;
The frequency of the interval containing the first decile;
The same for the ninth decile.
Calculate the first and ninth deciles.
The first decile is in the range of 0-1000 rubles, the cumulative frequency of which is 184 people, and the ninth decile is in the range of 3000-4000 rubles, the cumulative frequency of which is 1520 households. Hence the lowest incomes are equal to:
rub.
The highest incomes are:
rub.
5. Calculate the decile coefficient of income differentiation of the population according to the formula:
times.
The decile coefficient of income differentiation of the population shows that the average per capita cash income, above which 10% of the population (high-income group) had income, in the analyzed period exceeded by 3.9 times the income level below which 10% of the population had income (low-income group).
6. a) Let us determine with a probability of 0.954 the limits of the average per capita income of households in the region:
When calculating the sampling error for average per capita income, we use the formula:
;
Or 1% by condition; - general average; - sample mean; is the sample variance of the same feature.
Therefore, we substitute the previously obtained values into the formula:
; ;
Limit sampling error for the average with mechanical selection:
The normalized deviation (“confidence coefficient”) depends on the probability with which the marginal sampling error is guaranteed (P=0.954).
According to the table P=F(t)=0.954, therefore t=2.
At t=2, with a probability of 0.954, it can be argued that the difference between the sample and general indicators will not go beyond .
The marginal sampling error allows you to determine the marginal values of the characteristics of the general population and their confidence intervals for the mean:
;
;
The sample average is 1885 rubles. Let's calculate the boundaries:
With a probability of 0.954, it can be argued that the average per capita income of households will be in the range from 1836.8 to 1933.2 rubles.
b) Let us determine the possible limits for the share of households with an income of less than 2,000 rubles.
The specific weight or sample share (w) is calculated by the formula:
The marginal sampling error for the share is determined by the formula for non-repetitive selection:
Substituting the obtained values into the formula, we get:
The total share (p) is calculated by the formula:
The boundaries within which the general share will be located are calculated based on the double inequality:
;
Substituting the values, we get:
, or
Thus, with a probability of 0.954, it can be argued that the share of households with an income of less than 2,000 rubles will be in the range from 66.5% to 71.1%.
There is data on the distribution of the total volume of monetary incomes of the population of the region, %:
Table 4
For the base and reporting year:
a) determine the income concentration indices of A. Gini;
b) plot the Lorenz curves.
Draw your own conclusions.
Solution.
a) To find the income concentration indices, we use the formula:
Let's make a calculation table to find the corresponding amounts:
Table 5
| Social population |
population, |
Share in total The amount of cash income |
Estimated indicators |
||||||
| Basic |
|||||||||
| Reporting |
|||||||||
| The Lorenz curve illustrates the increased unevenness in the distribution of total cash income in the reporting year compared to the base year. Thus, the wealthiest group of the population concentrated 47% of income in the reporting year against 42% in the base year, while the share of the least wealthy group in total income increased from 5.8% to 6.2%. Task 3In the region, the average monthly cash income per capita in the first half of the reporting year is characterized by the following data: Table 6 According to the dynamics series, determine: 1. Chain and basic: a) absolute gains; b) growth and growth rates; 2. Absolute content of 1% increase. Present the results in a table. 3. Average indicators of a series of dynamics: a) the average level of the row; b) average monthly absolute increase; c) the average monthly rate of growth and growth. Build a graph of the dynamics of the average per capita income of the population. Analyze the indicators and draw conclusions. Solution. 1.2. Let us calculate the chain and basic indicators of a series of dynamics of average monthly income per capita by months, as well as the absolute content of 1% growth. Designations accepted: Indicator for the considered (th) time interval; Indicator for the previous (th) time interval; The indicator for the base time interval. chain, rub. |
Absolute growth base, rub. |
basic, |
growth, rub. |
||||||
3. Calculate the average annual indicators of a series of dynamics using the following formulas:
a) Determine the average level of the series using the arithmetic mean:
b) Average absolute increase in cash income
rub.
c) Average growth rate
or 105.4%
average growth rate
Let's build a graph of the dynamics of the average per capita income of the population.
Fig.2. Dynamics of the average monthly income of the population
Analyzing the obtained indicators, we can say that in the first half of the year there was a gradual increase in the average per capita income of the population, i.e. in this series of dynamics there is a positive development trend, as evidenced by an average growth rate of 5.4% (or an average absolute increase of 24 rubles) per month, as well as positive chain growth and growth rates.
The following data are available on the dynamics of incomes of the region's population, million rubles.
Table 8
Consumer prices in the reporting year increased by 16% compared to the base year.
Define:
1. For each year:
a) nominal cash income;
b) the structure of nominal cash income;
c) disposable cash income.
Present the calculation results in the table.
Draw your own conclusions.
Solution.
1. a) Define the nominal income of the population as the sum of all cash income for each year:
for the base year we have: 374 million rubles. (see table)
for the reporting year we have: 503 million rubles. (see table).
The absolute increase in nominal cash income in the reporting year compared to the base year amounted to 129 million rubles. (503-374).
b) Let us determine the structure of nominal money incomes of the population:
Table 9
The structure of monetary incomes of the population
c) We will find the disposable cash income of the population for each year as the difference between nominal personal income (LN) and the payment of mandatory payments and contributions:
LRD=LDN-NP
for the base year we have: JPL=374-29=345 million rubles.
for the reporting year we have: LRD=503-45=458 million rubles.
The absolute increase in disposable cash income of the population in the reporting year compared to the base year amounted to 113 million rubles.
2. Determine the purchasing power index of the ruble for each year using the formula:
However, first you need to find the nominal wage index using the formula:
or 130.9%.
Then the real wage index is:
or 112.8%.
This means that in the reporting year, nominal wages increased by 30.9%, while real wages grew by only 12.8% compared to the base year.
1. Statement of the problem
The study of the average per capita income of the population is very important. The distribution of the population according to the size of the average per capita income is the main characteristic of the differentiation of the population in terms of the level of material well-being. In addition, this indicator characterizes not only the economic role of the population and the degree of dependence of the economy on its behavior, but also the ability of the population to satisfy their needs, the cost of social programs, that is, at the same time it is one of the important indicators of the standard of living.
The purpose of the analytical part of the work is to study and compare the average per capita monetary income of the population per month for 2000-2004.
According to the data on the average per capita income of the population of Russia per month for 5 years, presented in Table 1, we will reveal a general trend in the change in cash income, freed from the effect of such a factor as inflation. To do this, we calculate the following indicators:
The absolute growth
· growth rate,
the growth rate,
the absolute value of 1% growth,
· the average for the period the level of the series, the absolute increase, the rate of growth and growth.
Average per capita cash income of the population of Russia per month
In addition to production relations, there are other types of relations in the economy, in particular, distribution ones. They are realized in the income system of the population and other economic entities. In general, the category "income" treated as a flow of cash receipts per unit of time.
Population income- these are all material resources that households receive as a result of economic activity or as .
Income is received by the population in cash and in kind. The in-kind form of income includes products produced by households for their own consumption, transfers in kind (food, clothing).
There is a fairly complex system of income classification. But initially the income is in the form factor income.
It was noted above that modern market economic theory operates with three groups, which are called "", "", "". For each factor of production, the ability to create both products and incomes is recognized:
Types and sources of factor (primary) income
|
Sources of income |
Type of income |
Income recipient |
|
Wage |
Wage-earners |
|
|
Capital in productive form |
Capital owner |
|
|
capital in cash |
Capital owner |
|
|
Per capita characteristics are calculated not only for all nominal and real indicators in general, but also for their individual components. These are, for example, indicators of average nominal and real wages, assigned pensions, and benefits that are of particular importance for assessing the standard of living of the population. Thus, per capita incomes are determined not only for the entire population as a whole, but also for its individual contingents - those working in the economy, students, pensioners, etc. Average monthly nominal accrued wages working in the economy is determined by dividing the accrued monthly payroll by the average number and the number of months in the period. At the same time, social benefits received by employees from state and non-state off-budget funds are not included in the wage fund and average wages. The average amount of the assigned monthly pension is obtained by dividing the total amount of assigned monthly pensions by the corresponding number of pensioners. Per capita income in real terms is usually given as a percentage of the previous year, i.e. in index form. Social normsWhen studying the standard of living, social standards and the average minimum income of the population are of decisive importance. They are approved by law and are the most important guarantees of income for the population, which must be provided by the state based on the achieved level of socio-economic development of the country. Social standards include the living wage, minimum wage, old-age pension, etc. Based on the results of sample surveys of household budgets, the volume and composition of total income are determined, differences in income levels for certain types of households are revealed depending on location, family composition, employment, and other socio-demographic and natural-climatic factors. Total household income includes cash income (coincides in content with a similar indicator of the balance of cash income and expenses), the cost of consumed food products of own production or received from other sources (help from relatives, etc.), as well as the cost of subsidies and benefits provided in kind. Cash and total income of households before taxes and obligatory payments are nominal, and after these payments - disposable. To examine trends over time, total and disposable money incomes are calculated in real terms (by adjusting for the consumer price index). Within the framework of the system of national accounts, taking into account international standards, new ones are currently being introduced. Thus, for the analysis of the standard of living, indicators of gross and adjusted disposable income of the household sector are becoming increasingly common. Gross disposable income includes the amount of primary income received by resident households in connection with their direct participation in the production process (wages, mixed income, property income), as well as the balance of current transfers received and transferred. Adjusted disposable income is equal to the sum of disposable income and social transfers in kind (the cost of free or subsidized services in the field of education, health care, social security, housing and communal services, etc.). A feature of measuring the income of the population is the fact that the processes of income generation and their use are not always amenable to direct observation, and some elements can only be assessed indirectly (“shadow” economy, employment in the informal sector of the economy). |
The GDP produced in the national economy is to be used in two directions: one part of it goes to reimburse the means of production spent in social production and its further development, and the other goes to the personal consumption of the country's population, forming its income.
Population income- this is the amount of money and material goods received over a certain period of time and intended to satisfy personal needs. Income is received by the members of society in two ways.
In accordance with the first, they are distributed depending on their participation in the national economy. This distribution is called horizontal, or functional, distribution of income when a part of the national income is received by categories of the population actively participating in a market economy. They receive their share of the income in the form of wages (workers), profits (entrepreneurs), salaries (employees), rent (owners of land and house owners), interest (owners of money capital).
In the second way, they go to that part of the population that, for reasons beyond its control, cannot participate in market economic activity. These categories of the population include pensioners, the disabled, the unemployed, students. In this direction of income distribution, called vertical , the state always participates, regulating this process in accordance with established social norms. These categories of the population are provided with income in the form of payments from the state budget, which are called social transfers and are implemented in the form of pensions, various allowances and scholarships.
In this way, the main sources of income for the population are: wages, income from the use of property and from the results of entrepreneurial activity, social payments (transfer payments).
The main directions of use of income are: the purchase of goods and payment for services, the payment of taxes and various contributions, the accumulation of savings in deposits and securities, the purchase of foreign currency.
Incomes of the population can exist in two forms - monetary and natural. In cash workers are paid, business income, pensions, scholarships, various allowances, property income in the form of interest, dividends, rents, income from the sale of securities, etc. are paid.
in kind incomes are received by the population in the form of products of summer cottages and household plots, gifts of nature, as well as the results of performing all kinds of household work (housing repairs, home furniture, making household items).
Exists several types of income , the main ones being:
· labor income , which represent income received as a result of labor activity in the form of wages and business profits. Wage - this is the amount of money that compensates for the costs of the worker's labor and provides a certain level of satisfaction of his personal needs and the needs of his family members. There are nominal and real wages. Nominal wages - this is the amount of money received for a certain period of time after the payment of taxes and other obligatory payments. Real wage represents the quantity of goods and services that can be purchased for nominal wages at a given price level;
· unearned income , representing income not related to labor activity (interest on bank deposits, dividends on securities, lottery winnings, inheritance, donation, etc.);
· legal income , which include all types of income received from any type of economic activity that do not contradict the law and have been registered with state bodies;
· illegal (shadow) income , including income received from illegal, hidden from society, economic activities. This includes income from the drug business, from the sale of stolen property, smuggling, income from "shadow" economic activities. Shadow income differs from legal income primarily in that its recipient does not pay taxes;
· nominal income - this is the amount of money received by individuals for a certain period of time (salary, profit, interest on deposits, rent, transfer payments - unemployment benefits, pensions, scholarships, social insurance payments);
· disposable income - income that can be used for personal consumption and personal savings. It is formed when taxes and mandatory payments are paid from nominal income;
· real income, which is the amount of goods and services that can be bought with disposable income during a certain time, taking into account changes in prices.
During the period of transition to a market economy, due to the rapid rise in prices, it becomes necessary to bring the income of the population into line with the rising cost of living. In order to maintain a certain standard of living achieved, the following methods are used:
· indexing , which represents the adjustment of the income of the population in the event of an increase in prices for goods and services, leading to a decrease in the standard of living;
· income compensation , which means reimbursement to the population of a part of additional expenses caused by an increase in prices for groups of goods that are in mass demand;
· income adjustment , expressed in an increase in fixed incomes (pensions, scholarships, benefits) as the cost of living rises.
The amount of income and their distribution by population groups determines the standard of living. Standard of living - this is the provision of the population with the material and spiritual benefits necessary for life, the degree of satisfaction of its needs. The standard of living is expressed using such indicators as the total volume of goods and services consumed, real incomes of the population, wages, working conditions, free time, housing conditions, development of education, health and culture, life expectancy, consumer basket.
In world practice, aggregated and generalizing indicators of the standard of living are also used. UN experts evaluate the standard of living through human development index (HDI) , which takes into account GDP per capita (or material well-being), average life expectancy, level of education and health care.
The most important indicator of the standard of living is consumer basket , which is a set of goods and services to meet the needs of an average family of two adults and two children of school age, and to ensure a minimum standard of living. The consumer basket is formed according to the following main items of expenditure:
· food;
clothes, underwear, shoes;
Sanitation, hygiene items, medicines;
Furniture, cultural and household items and household items;
housing and utilities;
cultural and educational events and recreation;
· domestic services. transport and communications;
Taxes, obligatory payments and savings;
· other expenses.
The costs of acquiring a set of goods and services in the consumer basket underlie minimum consumer budget .
Based on the minimum consumer budget, determine minimum wage , which is a standard that determines the minimum allowable level of remuneration for an employee by an employer for work performed for him.
If the total income of families or single citizens is at the level of 60% of the minimum consumer budget, then such a population lives in conditions living wage, or on the poverty line . The population that has cash incomes below the subsistence level is defined as poor.
