The archaic period $ (VIII-VI $ centuries BC) was marked by the stage of formation of a socially divided society and a polis state. It was a fundamentally different path of development, completely different from the form of state formations of the ancient East, Crete and Achaean Greece, which became an integral feature of ancient life. The period of formation of the policy stretched for about half a millennium. The process of its disintegration took no less time. The phenomenon of the polis system was the result of a long development of ancient civilization, and its origins should be sought in ancient times, especially the development of the rural community, which consists in the effective interaction of the communal and privately owned economy.
The process of the historical development of Hellas proceeded within the framework of internally cohesive republics, based on a civil society of moderately prosperous farmers. In such state associations, favorable conditions are created for maintaining high rates of economic development, stratification of the social structure, the emergence of more complex and diverse institutions, and the emergence of a high culture. The overall result of this process was the emergence of several hundred small state formations with a similar socio-economic structure, principles of political organization of power and a system of spiritual values. It was in the crabs of the polis system that the Greeks created a unique civilization that enriched the treasury of world culture and secured a worthy place in history for itself.
Remark 1
It should be borne in mind that the term “polis” among the Greeks meant both a city and a state, therefore, the definition “city-state” is often applied to it. This is not entirely correct, since the urban settlement did not exist everywhere. For example, Sparta existed as a union of several villages, without an urban education.
Each city-state had its own characteristics. But, at the same time, they all had the following similar features:
Definition 1
Metek- Incompetent resident, migrant from another policy.
The core of the social structure was the so-called collective, full-fledged citizens - indigenous people.
Definition 2
Indigenous resident of the policy- a citizen whose ancestors lived in the region for several generations. He owned a plot of land, participated in popular meetings, and had a place in the phalanx of heavily armed hoplites.
Focus on the middle class. The civil collective of the policy was heterogeneous. Rapid growth commodity-money relations led to rapid property stratification and, consequently, the weakening of ties between different social strata. The policy tried to maintain the unity of citizens, applying a number of measures for this: allocating plots to landless citizens, introducing a landowner's maximum, which prevented the concentration of the land fund in a narrow circle of nobility. Liturgies were imposed on the wealthy members of society.
Definition 3
Liturgy- a special tax imposed on wealthy citizens of the policy. It existed in the form of choregia and trierarchy.
Definition 4
Choregia- a special policy duty for wealthy citizens who were obliged, during the period of preparation for theatrical performances, to pay for the staging of a particular drama, tragedy, comedy and the work of actors.
Definition 5
Tri-hierarchy- a special policy duty for wealthy citizens who were obliged, during the war, to build warships for the policy and pay for the crew service at their own expense.
Having a common ideology where the highest value was determined by the policy itself. The concept of a citizen as a free person was formed, having full political rights and the duty to protect the state from enemy forces.
In history, there are several types of policies, which ancient authors divided into three categories according to the form of government: democracy, oligarchy, tyranny.
Modern science takes into account the level of economic relations, distinguishing three groups:
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Greek polis
The Greek policy was formed as a community of citizens engaged in agriculture. This type of activity of citizens was the basis of the economy of the policy. And since it is the policy that is the main form of political and social organization of ancient society, this multifaceted phenomenon should be considered in detail. Moreover, to use the material of the development of the policy of the classical type (archaic Greece). Later Greek authors (Thucydides, Herodotus) defined the polis as a collective, more precisely, an organized community of people. The polis collective as a collective of citizens provided all the material conditions for its existence. This meant the coexistence of such structures as the totality of households, land and property, providing sufficient material prosperity.
The basis of the policy is the material relations of property, which manifested themselves in a dual form - public and private. Ancient authors, as contemporaries of this historical phenomenon, noted that a combination of a system of common property and private property is preferable, if they are consecrated by customs and regulated by the laws of the state.
Certain categories of land are in public ownership; but only citizens have the right to a land plot within the polis territory. This "principle of exclusivity" in relation to the ownership of land only for the citizens of the polis is a fundamental principle of the ancient civil community. This explains the widespread publicity of all transactions related to land: the approval of the land maximum, supervision of inheritance. In disputable cases, the policy became the heir land taxes. Thus, the policy, as a collective of citizens, was both the supreme owner and the guarantor of the landed property of individual citizens. Hence, there are so frequent cases of public discontent, when among the citizens there were demands for the redistribution of land.
Such an attitude towards land ownership led to the formation of the polis political system, when only the owners of the land were endowed with political rights. Vivid examples of such a conditional civil status were Sparta, Heraclea Pontus and a number of other policies in Greece. Such an “oikos principle”, when the head of the household (oikosa) has the right to participate in political life (which even his adult sons did not have), could not but interfere with public life. Political rights were also enjoyed by those who for some reason lost their land allotment. But in society, land ownership was the dominant trend, as it was a requirement of social prestige. In Athenian practice, for example, an orator and strategist could not enjoy the confidence of the people without being a landowner.
The described requirements for the political life of a real ancient Greek policy led to the fact that all citizens were equal accomplices in political life.
Thus, the policy was, on the one hand, the sum of oikos (households), on the other hand, it had a complex organization based on such a unit as oikos.
As a result of new economic processes there was a transition from barbarism to civilization. The archaic era strengthened the position of the city-polis. There was a separation of the policy both economically and politically from the village and its subordination. The development of commodity-money relations formed the political picture of the development of Greece in the 8th-6th centuries.
The Greek policy grew out of the fortified settlements of the Homeric time - policies, having adopted the name. The polis of the archaic type was the center of a dwarf state, uniting nearby koma (villages) located around the polis. Such consolidation and political strengthening of the policy, as noted by ancient historians, was also associated with natural increase population. The so-called association of communities was practiced. synoykism (common settlement) to resist hostile forces.
In most cases, up to a thousand people lived in a small area. The most notable cities of this period are Miletus and Corinth.
Archaeological Smina impressed the researchers with its correct layout, developed everyday culture, competent landscape binding to the coast of the peninsula on which the policy was located.
Aristotle distinguished several types of polis arrangement. He included here, respectively, the monarchy, the aristocracy, the oligarchy, the democracy, and the polity. The ancient author possessed sufficient historical and factual material contemporary to him, however, he found it difficult to give a strict framework for his structuring, since he understood the absence of sharp differences in the social status of individual groups of the population of the early Greek polis. The policy was perceived by Aristotle on the basis of a unifying principle - a person's belonging to his team, local holy places and gods, earth, relatives. The idea of the policy was conceived as the opposition of an individual people to the hardships of the outside world, natural disasters and invasions of enemies. There was an integration of the collective in the face of possible unforeseen dangers up to clashes with hostile tribes outside the borders of their own policy.
As a sign of the policy, many ancient authors point to the autocracy of the demos: in each specific case, the demos, the citizenship of the policy, is able to oppose itself to the individual. This, for example, happened when a colony was brought to Thasos and was reflected in the poetry of Archilochus in the 2nd quarter - the middle of the 7th century. BC e.
The type of policy is determined according to the main mechanism for solving general policy problems. An example of an early democratic policy can be considered the social structure of Chios. civil rights endowed with all the free population. Moreover, from the preserved retra of the 6th century. BC e. it can be seen that the citizens were protected from the abuses of the authorities (magistrates) by the possibility of appealing directly to the People's Council. Being convicted of bribes, magistrates, demarches and basilei paid a fine, and the amount of the fine was very tangible. The democratic polis regulated its entire internal life by means of laws adopted with the consent and with the participation of its free population.
This example has entered the annals of history due to the fact that in Chios the majority of the inhabitants not only stood at a high level of prosperity, but also managed to manage their relationships without clashes on a class basis. Living in a big mall of their time, the Chians were members of a trading post in Egyptian Naucratis. Amphoras from Chios are present in layers of the 7th–6th centuries. in a wide range of archaeological sites.
In Thrace, a colony of Maroneia appeared with a similar system of management, which soon became a famous wine-making center. In the middle of the VI century. the Chians settled on the mainland (Atarnea), opposite Fr. Lesbos, thus increasing their land fund.
The oligarchic policy assumes special system agriculture, which is reflected in the relevant laws. In this sense, the Lockrid legislation of the last quarter of the 6th century is interesting. BC e., according to which the redistribution of land was carried out. Judging by the context of the document, new Epoic settlers were accepted into the community. When receiving an allotment (it was also possible to receive several allotments), a citizen also used the public fund, from which he could draw funds for the arrangement. Inheritance rights to land were fixed by law, as well as the amount of tax levied for public needs.
By stimulating private initiative and, possibly, a higher quality of land cultivation, the polis assigned newly acquired lands to its citizens. The law was declared consecrated by the Pythian Apollo, which gave the rights to the land divine inviolability. Polis life was diversified by the entry into possession of new epoiks and the redistribution of plots, however, in practice, newcomers (as the document says - “combat-ready defenders”) were placed in unequal conditions compared to the indigenous people: they received uncomfortable or rocky land.
However, in any case, landed property gave the right to vote in the city assembly. In addition, there was also a Council (101 people), where the most worthy citizens of the policy were elected. Gradually, however, as the old democratic ties weakened and property was concentrated in the hands of individuals, the democratic form of government in the polis acquired more and more distinct oligarchic features.
The oligarchy began to stand out from the total number of free citizens of the policy due to two main features - the possession of a large amount of land and weapons. There were purely agricultural oligarchies; in other cases, the oligarchy was also made up of certain members of the community according to the right of birth, the descendants of the conquerors, etc.
However, being at least a potential owner of a land allotment, each citizen of the policy was also a warrior. In the history of archaic Greece, equestrian oligarchies are also sufficiently recorded, where military prowess was revered higher and gave more opportunities to control their fellow citizens than a purely property status. A number of policies recognized as citizens only those who had the opportunity to go to war in full hoplite weapons. According to surviving sources, the possibility or impossibility of acquiring by a citizen of the policy the entire set of weapons of the hoplite - panoply - and, thus, his participation or non-participation in the battle as a full-fledged heavily armed warrior determined his participation in various civilian structures. Since weapons in those days were generally not cheap, in the final analysis, the social weight of this or that person was again determined by his personal well-being, and this situation, as you can see, has not changed in any way throughout the history of the world.
The military side of the polis oligarchy, service in the phalanx was the fulfillment of the main civil duty. The phalanx was conceived as a continuation of the policy, and war as a natural occupation of free people. At the same time, the actions of equal warriors of the same type, subject to a single discipline, symbolically emphasized the equality of these people in all other matters not related to military operations.
Many details of polis life are still unclear, and this leaves room for free interpretations and various hypotheses, and also once again emphasizes the complex nature of ancient Greek social relations.
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Greek polis- "city-state", the form of organization of which was based on communal relations.
A feature of the policy was the ownership of land by the entire civil collective, a member of which had his own land plot, and therefore was a full-fledged citizen of the policy.
This period is sometimes called the time of the formation of the "Greek miracle". In fact, in just three centuries, the foundations of civilization were formed: a more perfect economic system, based on market relations, the Greeks are moving from a tribal society to a civil society, where relations are built on the basis of existing (written) laws. At this time, a worldview arises that is distinguished by a rational view of the world around it, Greek art develops, embodying high aesthetic ideals. But the main phenomenon that determined the essence of the era was the formation of the Greek policy.
A characteristic feature of the policy was its small size. A typical Greek polis, as a rule, had its own chora (i.e. agricultural territory), reaching several tens or even hundreds of kilometers. Approximately 5-10 thousand people lived in such a policy, of which no more than 2000 had citizenship rights.
There were also larger policies: up to 200 thousand people lived in Athens, although there were no more than 35 thousand people in it. There could also be very small policies, where only a few hundred people lived. But each policy was a sovereign state that had its own citizenship, its own laws and its own governing bodies.
The center of the policy has always been the city, and Greek civilization, in fact, was an urban civilization. It was the city with its economic opportunities, dynamic life that formed more high level needs than traditional village life.
The Greek polis became such a form of ancient society and the state, where for the first time the existence of the concepts of "citizen", "civil society" was possible.
In the era of the archaic, simultaneously with the formation of the Greek policy, an idea of \u200b\u200bcivil status is formed. The first quality of a citizen was his status as a free man. After the universal abolition of debt slavery, a citizen in his state could not, under any circumstances, be enslaved. In principle, the conviction is gradually emerging that a Greek, any Greek, cannot be a slave.
The most important right of a citizen was the right to land ownership. Agriculture has long been the main occupation of citizens, and it was this that was considered as the most appropriate thing for a free man. Peasant labor was associated with such an important concept for the Greeks as autarky, economic self-sufficiency, since it was believed that economic independence is a necessary prerequisite for political freedom.
Because of this, the work of an artisan, merchant, money changer was considered less prestigious, since it made a person dependent on the market elements. Wage labor, labor for another person was generally impossible for a citizen. A citizen works for himself, a slave works for another person.
Another right and at the same time the duty of a citizen was personal participation in the defense of his policy. Every citizen was a warrior. Since policies, as very small political formations, could not maintain a standing army, the entire male population had to defend their homeland from external threats.
During the archaic period, due to the growing prosperity of a significant part of the demos, heavy weapons, previously available only to representatives of the aristocracy, are becoming more widespread. Now in the Greek army the main figure becomes hoplite- Heavily armed infantryman.
Having the opportunity to arm a large detachment of warriors well, the Greeks created phalanx- closely closed, acting as a single tactical formation of hoplites. Having closely closed the formation, putting forward spears, to the sounds of music that set the rhythm of the movement, the phalanx, like an armored wall, swept away the enemy’s battle formations. It was in the solidity of the whole system, in the coherence of the actions of all the soldiers that the striking force of the phalanx consisted. Here there was no place for manifestations of individual courage and personal courage, courage and discipline of all were required here.
The Greeks were excellent warriors, and this was due both to the special physical training of citizens, to the development of Greek sports agonistics, and to the high-willed qualities that they demonstrated on the battlefield. Military clashes, and especially wars with the Persians in the 5th century. BC e., proved the ability of Greek warriors to fight to the last drop of blood, defending their state.
Patriotism was an important component in the system of spiritual values of citizens. The inhabitant of the Greek polis defended not some abstract idea, but himself, his loved ones, his property, his freedom, his civil status. A citizen who could not defend his homeland lost his status, which means, according to the Greeks, he became an inferior person. The phalanx accustomed the citizen to the idea that his interests, his status and property could be protected only by the joint efforts of all citizen warriors, that only the collective was the guarantee of his existence as a citizen.
In a society where a citizen is part of an armed people and, besides this people's militia, there is no other force for forcing an individual to perform any action, a different system of relations is developing between the authorities and the individual, between members of this society. With the withering away of tribal institutions that used to control various areas life, in the era of archaism, a system arises legal regulation relationships, the determining factor is the law.
In the policy, the source of legal norms was the people themselves, and the supreme legislative body was the people's assembly. Participation in the adoption of laws or decisions concerning the interests of the entire population was an important right of a citizen of the policy. The conviction that both the fate of the state and your personal well-being depend on you personally, your decision, stimulated the political activity of citizens. Public indifference was considered unworthy of the status of a citizen. It was participation in the political life of the state that made a person a citizen, which, according to Aristotle, fundamentally distinguished the Greeks from the barbarians.
Thus, the trinity of concepts: a landowner, a warrior, a participant in political life, characterizes the status of a citizen of the policy. The totality of the citizens of the policy is civil society.
Andreev Yu.V. Early Greek polis. St. Petersburg, 2003.
Koshelenko G.A. Greek polis in the Hellenistic East. M., 1979.
Frolov E.D. Birth of the Greek polis. St. Petersburg, 2004.
Zaitsev A.I. Cultural upheaval in ancient Greece in the 7th-5th centuries. BC.
Ancient Greece has always amazed even the imagination of compatriots, not to mention the historians of our time. Their civilization, which originates from simple fishermen and herders, soon became one of the most powerful in the Ancient World. The Greeks were revered as outstanding (and extremely cunning) politicians, excellent sailors and warriors.
They also reached considerable heights in mechanics: some of their devices are not inferior in complexity to mechanical watches of the 19th century. The Greeks were aware of the energy of steam, they created the first prototypes of steam engines in the form of toys.
However, all these and many other achievements would not have been possible without a carefully adjusted social structure of the state, which could educate its citizens and protect them from enemies. Since the polis was the main "cog" of the ancient Greek civilization, this phenomenon should be discussed separately.
In fact, a separate city was called a policy. But here an important clarification should be made: in those years, cities were often in fact separate states. The same Phoenician Empire was, in the modern sense of the word, a confederation formed by individual countries that could leave it at any time. In addition, the main part of the population of the policy was politically active: any free person considered it his duty to participate in the vote, in making important government decisions.
All this often resulted in fierce disputes and even fights right on the streets, which is why contemporaries considered the Greeks to be "wacky and noisy people." Thus, the policy should be considered a separate, special form of political and social organization. The territory of such a formation was limited not only by the city walls, but also by those lands that the main part of the population of the policy (that is, people who were on public service) could protect and cultivate.
The policy is unique in that it arose at a turning point in ancient history, during the transition from the tribal and communal system to the first "proto-states". In those distant years, the stratification of society began: they preferred to become artisans and sell the results of their work, rather than give away the benefits they created for nothing. Merchants appeared who knew how to sell handicrafts to other tribes, a “caste” of warriors who defended those same merchants and the general well-being of all members of this “forerunner of the state” became rigidly isolated.
In general, almost all city-states of Ancient Greece had a good army, and therefore, if necessary, they could stand up for themselves.
Of course, all these people preferred not to live in a bare field. Large cities began to emerge and develop rapidly. Due to the fact that artisans and landowners, merchants and warriors, scientists and politicians lived within their walls, they were completely self-sufficient. This is how policies came into being.
But what was the social structure of such amazing (by modern standards) "cities"? Oddly enough, but the bulk of the population of the Greek-style policy was represented by free people, citizens. They participated both in the production of everything necessary (cattle breeders, farmers, artisans), and in the protection of their land. The military estate protected the settlements from not too dangerous threats, while during the time of enemy raids, all its inhabitants came out to protect the walls of the policy.
The territory of the policy usually included the city center itself and the chora - the adjacent agricultural district. The policy consisted of full-fledged citizens - members of the community - each of whom had the right to land ownership and political rights. Part of the population did not belong to the policy and did not have the rights of citizens: meteks, perieks, freedmen, slaves.
The state system in policies was different: oligarchy, democracy, monarchy (monarchy was typical for policies in the archaic period), etc. In democratic policies, power belonged to the people's assembly, in aristocratic policies - to the council of the nobility, in oligarchic - to the qualification assembly. The state apparatus of the policy consisted of a popular assembly (ecclesia, synod, councils, comitia), a council (people's councils - the Sanhedrin, bule, tribunate, defensorate, aristocratic councils - gerusia, senate) and magistrates (strategists, polemarchs, consuls, praetors, aristocratic magistrates - basileus, archons, rexes, princeps, people's representatives - aediles, agoranomas), justice was carried out by elected courts (dicasteries, questions), armed forces were armies recruited from all citizens. The decisions of the people, the council and the courts, the orders of magistrates and army commanders were binding, while the citizens themselves had personal, economic and political freedom. In some policies, a salary was supposed for the administration of positions of members of councils, judges, magistrates and army commanders, and a salary was also supposed for service in the army.
Sometimes the policy is considered as one of the types of so-called. "city-states". The last designation in this case, however, seems to be extremely incorrect, since it was shown by G. A. Koshelenko that a typical policy was not a city, and, as M. Berent showed, it was not a state either. At its core, the policy is an agricultural community, therefore, the supreme property of the community over land plots citizens. The polis is not only a political and economic, but also a religious organization in which the spiritual and secular authorities coincided, and the polis priesthood was part of the system of polis magistracies.
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This term has other meanings, see Polis. Polis (dr. Greek πόλις) is an urban civil community that constitutes itself as a political organization; a special form of social organization characteristic of the ancient world ... Wikipedia
ANTIQUITY- pedagogical thought and educational practice. Ped. thought and the system will educate. institutions first reached mature forms in Greece by the 4th century. BC e. after a long evolution of the policy (city of the state), in Rome to the con. 1 in. BC e., when the slave owner ... ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia
- (French antiquité, English antiquity, German Antike) a term that has passed into Russian. lang. from Romanesque and German. languages and ascending to lat. antiquitas antiquity, antiquity. AT general sense quite equivalent to Russian antiquity. More often, however, it has a special ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
The term, which goes back to lat. antiquitas antiquity, antiquity; in the broad sense of the word, it is quite equivalent to the Russian "antiquity", more often it has a special use in the same meaning of "antiquity", but in the application to Ancient Greece (including Hellenism) ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Antiquity- pedagogical thought and educational practice. Pedagogical thought and the system of educational institutions first reached mature forms in Greece by the 4th century. BC. after a long evolution of the policy (city of the state), in Rome by the end of the 1st century. BC.,… … Pedagogical terminological dictionary
antique polis is a city that includes land adjacent to it. Accordingly, it is a place of settlement for farmers who independently manage their farms. The cultivation of the land itself in Greece (stony soil, relatively dry climate, lack of ... Man and Society: Culturology. Dictionary-reference
