Hydropower resources of the world. Abstract: Hydropower resources of the world The countries with the most hydropower potential

INTRODUCTION

Man in ancient times paid attention to rivers as an affordable source of energy. To use this energy, people have learned to build water wheels that are rotated by water; these wheels set in motion the mills and other installations.

The watermill is a striking example of the oldest hydropower installation, which has survived in many countries to our time almost in its original form. Before the invention of the steam engine, water power was the main driving force in production.

With the improvement of water wheels, the power of hydraulic installations that set machine tools in motion, etc. increased. In the first half of the 19th century, a hydroturbine was invented, which opened up new possibilities for the use of hydropower resources. With the invention of an electric machine and a method for transmitting electricity over considerable distances, the development of water energy began by converting it into electrical energy at hydroelectric power plants (HPPs).

GENERAL INFORMATION

Hydropower resources are the energy reserves of the flowing water of river flows and reservoirs located above sea level (as well as the energy of sea tides).

An essential feature in the assessment of hydropower resources is the fact that surface waters are the most important component of the ecological balance of the planet. If all other types of primary energy resources are used primarily for energy generation, then hydraulic resources should also be assessed in terms of the possibilities for industrial and public water supply, the development of fisheries, irrigation, navigation, etc.

Hydropower resources are also characterized by the fact that the conversion of the mechanical energy of water into electrical energy occurs at hydroelectric power plants without intermediate heat production.

The energy of the rivers is renewable, and the cyclicity of its reproduction is completely dependent on the river flow, so hydropower resources are unevenly distributed throughout the year, in addition, their value varies from year to year. In a generalized form, hydropower resources are characterized by an average long-term value (as well as water resources).

Under natural conditions, the energy of rivers is spent on erosion of the bottom and banks of the channel, transfer and processing of solid material, leaching and transfer of salts. This erosive activity can lead to harmful consequences (violation of the stability of the coast, floods, etc.), and have a beneficial effect, such as the removal of ore and minerals from the rock, the formation, removal and accumulation of various building materials (pebbles, sand) . Therefore, the use of hydro resources to generate electricity is detrimental to the formation of other important resources.

The use of hydropower resources occupies a significant place in the global electricity balance. In the 1970s and 1980s, the weight of hydropower was at the level of about 26% of the world's total electricity generation, reaching a significant absolute value. Electricity generation by hydroelectric power plants in the world after the 2nd World War grew at a rapid pace: from 200 billion kWh in 1946 to 860 billion kWh in 1965 and 975 billion kWh in 1978. And now in The world produces 2,100 billion kilowatt-hours of hydropower per year, and by the year 2000 this figure will still grow. The accelerated development of hydropower in many countries of the world is explained by the prospect of increasing fuel and energy and environmental issues associated with the continued increase in electricity generation at traditional (thermal and nuclear) power plants with a poorly developed technological basis for the use of non-traditional energy sources. The bulk of the world's hydropower generation falls on North America, Europe, Russia and Japan, which produce up to 80% of the world's hydroelectric power.

In a number of countries with a high degree the use of hydropower resources, there is a decrease in the share of hydropower in the power balance. Yes, over the past 40 years specific gravity hydropower decreased in Austria from 80 to 70%, in France from 53 to a very small value (due to increased electricity generation at nuclear power plants), in Italy from 94 to 50% (this is due to the fact that the most exploitable hydropower resources in these countries are already nearly exhausted). One of the largest declines occurred in the United States, where hydropower generation in 1938 was 34%, and already in 1965 it was only 17%. At the same time, in the energy sector of Norway, this share is 99.6%, Switzerland and Brazil - 90%, Canada - 66%.

HYDROPOWER POTENTIAL and its distribution by continents and countries

Despite the significant development of hydropower in the world, there is still no complete uniformity in accounting for the world's hydropower resources and there are no materials that give a comparable assessment of the world's hydropower resources. Cadastral calculations of hydropower reserves of different countries and individual specialists differ from each other in a number of indicators: the completeness of coverage of the river system of a particular country and individual watercourses, the methodology for determining capacity; in some countries, potential hydropower resources are taken into account, in others various correction factors are introduced, etc.

An attempt to streamline the accounting and evaluation of world hydropower resources was made at the World Energy Conferences (MIREC).

The following content of the concept of hydropower potential was proposed - the totality of the gross capacity of all individual sections of the watercourse that are currently used or can be used energetically. The gross capacity of a watercourse, which characterizes its theoretical capacity, is determined by the formula:

N kW = 9.81 QH,

where Q is the flow rate of the watercourse, m 3 / s; H - fall, m

Power is determined for three typical flow rates: Q = 95% - flow rate, 95% security of the time; Q = 50% - security 50% of the time; Q cf - arithmetic mean.

A significant drawback of these proposals was that they provided for the accounting of hydropower resources not for the entire watercourse, but only for those sections of it that are of energy interest. The selection of these areas could not be strictly regulated, which in practice led to the introduction of elements of subjectivity into the calculations. In table. Table 1 shows the data calculated for the sixth session of MIREC on the hydropower resources of individual countries.

The issue of streamlining the accounting of hydropower resources was given much attention in the work of the Committee on Electricity of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, which established certain recommendations on this issue. These recommendations established the following classification in determining potential:

Theoretical gross (gross) hydropower potential (or total hydropower resources) :

1. surface, taking into account the energy of flowing waters on the territory of an entire region or a single river basin;
2. river, taking into account the energy of the watercourse.

				gross power, mln kW at expenses
	95% security	50% security		95% security	50% security

Brazil
Venezuela			Pakistan



			Australia

			Ivory Coast


Norway
Portugal			Congo (Brazzaville)
Finland			Madagascar

Germany

Yugoslavia

Operating net (or net) hydropower potential:

1. technical (or technical hydropower resources) - part of the theoretical gross river potential that can technically be used or is already being used (the world technical potential is estimated at approximately 12,300 billion kWh);
2. economic (or economic hydropower resources) - part of the technical potential, the use of which in the existing real conditions is economically justified (i.e., economically beneficial for use); economic hydropower resources in individual countries are given in Table 4.

In accordance with this, the total value of the world's potential hydropower resources of the river runoff is given in Table 2.

Table 2 Hydropower resources (total hydropower river potential) of selected continents

continent	hydropower resources		% of global total	specific value of hydropower resources, kW / sq. km
		billion kWh



North America
South America
Australia
Total for the globe
former USSR

The above calculations at one time made significant changes to the previous ideas about the distribution of hydropower resources across the continents. Especially Big changes were obtained from Africa and Asia. These data show that almost 36% of the world's hydropower reserves are concentrated on the Asian continent, while about 19% is concentrated in Africa, which was considered the richest in hydropower resources. In table. Table 3 compares the data characterizing the distribution of hydropower resources across the continents, obtained from various calculations.

Table 3. Saturation of hydropower resources on the territory of the continents, thousand kWh per 1 sq. km. km

Table 4 Comparison of data on the distribution of potential hydropower resources by continent (% of the total for the globe)

continent	according to the US Geological Survey	according to Oxford Atlas	according to the Yugoslav delegate to IV MIREC	according to the UN	according to the calculation made in the USSR



North America
South America
Australia
Earth as a whole

Even if we take into account the fact that the previous ideas about the distribution of hydropower resources were based on data calculated on the basis of a 95% supply, one cannot but pay attention to the exceptional overestimation in the previous ideas of the potential resources of Africa, based on exaggerated ideas about the flow of the rivers of this continent. . If the annual runoff of the Congo Basin was previously estimated at 500-570 mm of layer, then at present it is estimated at only 370 mm. For the Niger River, a runoff layer of 567 mm was taken, but in fact it is about 300 mm. The same happens with data on the average runoff layer, which are good indicators of the hydropower potential of individual continents (see Table 7). This table shows that the height of the continent and the magnitude of the runoff, i.e. in terms of key energy indicators, Africa ranks far behind Asia and almost on par with North America.

continent	Average height of the continent, m	runoff layer height, cm	area of the continent, million km 2	stock head, km 3



North America
South America
Australia

Thus, the distribution of hydro resources is connected to a greater extent with the geographical features of the largest rivers and their basins. Approximately 50% of the world's runoff falls on the 50 largest rivers, whose basins cover about 40% of the land. Fifteen rivers of this number have a flow of 10 thousand km 3 /s or more. Nine of them are in Asia, three are in South America, two are in North America, and one is in Africa.

In the world's hydropower resources, most (about 60%) falls on the eastern hemisphere, which is superior to the western one in terms of specific (per unit area) indicator of hydroresource availability (17 and 15 kW / km 2, respectively).

Thanks to high level industrial development, countries Western Europe and North America for a long time ahead of all other countries in terms of the development of hydropower resources. Already in the mid-20s, the hydro potential was developed in Western Europe by about 6%, and in North America, which had the largest hydropower capacities during this period, by 4%. Half a century later, the corresponding figures for Western Europe were about 60%, and for North America - about 35%. Already in the mid-70s, the absolute capacity of hydroelectric power plants in Western Europe exceeded those in any other region of the world.

AT developing countries the relatively high rate of hydropower use is largely due to the extremely low baseline. With a more than 50-fold increase in installed hydropower capacity over half a century, developing countries in the mid-1970s lagged behind developed countries by more than 4.5 times both in terms of power plant capacity and electricity generation. And if in the developed countries the hydro potential was used by about 45% in the mid-70s, then in developing countries - only by 5%. For the whole world, this figure as a whole is 18%. Thus, it is still typical for the world to use only a small part of the hydropower potential.

In connection with the exhaustion of economic hydropower resources in a number of countries, interest in the construction of pumped storage power plants (PSPPs) has increased significantly in these countries. In Europe, they began to build special pumped storage power plants in the 20-30s, but they have received great development since the mid-50s. Currently, more than half of the world's PSPs are located in the EU countries. In the US and Canada, pumped-storage installations in the past were less common than in Europe, because. these countries had large reserves of economic hydropower resources. However, interest in pumped storage power plants has also increased in recent years in the United States and Canada. Also of great interest in the world recently is the use of the energy of sea tides to generate electricity, this promising direction in hydropower, because The energy of sea tides is renewable and practically inexhaustible - it is a huge source of energy. Many countries already have tidal power plants (TPPs) in operation. France has advanced farthest in this direction.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECT IN THE USE OF HYDROPOWER RESOURCES

When using hydropower resources, the environmental aspect is very important. The construction of hydroelectric power stations is in many cases accompanied by the construction of reservoirs, which sometimes have a negative impact on the ecological situation and introduce a number of changes in nature. The hydropower of the future should, with a minimum negative impact on the natural environment, meet the needs of people for electricity to the maximum. Therefore, more and more attention is being paid to the problems of preserving the natural and social environment during hydraulic engineering construction. In modern conditions, the correct forecast of the consequences of such construction is especially important. The result of the forecast should be recommendations for mitigating and overcoming adverse environmental situations during the construction of HPPs, a comparative assessment of the environmental efficiency of created or planned hydroelectric facilities. Thus, we can talk about the expediency of forming a new, narrower and more complex category of hydropower resources - an environmentally effective part, differentiated by the degree of environmental load caused by the use of a certain share of hydropower potential. Unfortunately, at the moment, the development of methods for determining the ecological energy potential is practically not being carried out, but it is obvious that the development of hydropower without detailed environmental assessments of hydropower projects can undermine the already fragile ecological balance in the world.

Bibliography:

Avakyan A.B. "Integrated use and protection of water resources", M: 1990.
Baburin V.N. "Hydropower and complex use of water resources", M: Nauka, 1986.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia, M: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1971. - Volume 6.
Hydropower resources of the USSR, M: Nauka, 1967. Brief geographical encyclopedia, M: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1959. - Volume 2.
Obrezkov V.I. "Hydropower", textbook for universities, M: 1989.
Fuel and energy resources of capitalist and developing countries, M: Nauka, 1978.
Energetik, M: 1993, $5.
Energy, M: 1994, $4.
Energy, M: 1995, $2.

Rivers are also used to receive hydraulic energy. The theoretical (gross) hydropower potential of the world's rivers is estimated at 30-50 trillion. kWh of possible electricity generation. At present, the production of hydropower in the amount of 10 trillion cubic meters is economically justified. kWh per year. Of the individual large regions of the Earth, Asia and Latin America have the greatest hydropower potential. China, Russia, the USA, Zaire, Canada, and Brazil are leaders in terms of the scale of hydropower potential among the countries of the world. The use of the energy potential of rivers also varies by region. In Europe, this potential has already been used by 70%, while in Asia - by 14%, and in Africa - by only 3% (Table 5).

Table 5

World economic hydro potential and its use

forest resources

World forest resources are characterized by indicators forest cover, forest area and standing timber stock. The corresponding figures for the world and major regions are shown in Table 6.

Table 6

World Forest Resources

Regions	Forest cover, %	forest area	Total stock of wood, billion cubic meters m
Total, million ha	per capita, ha
CIS			3,0
Foreign Europe			0,3
Overseas Asia			0,2
Africa			1,3
North America			2,5
Latin America			2,2
Australia, Oceania			6,4
The whole world	30,0		0,8

Russia (700 million hectares), Brazil (300), Canada (260) have the largest forested areas of the countries of the world. Russia is the leader in coniferous wood reserves, Brazil is in the lead. See fig. 5-010.

There are two distinct forest belts on the planet. northern forest belt located in the zone of temperate and partly subtropical climate, it is dominated by coniferous trees. The most forested countries within this belt are Russia, Canada, USA, Finland, Sweden. Southern forest belt is located mainly in the tropical and equatorial climate zone. Forest tracts, characterized by an extraordinary diversity of species composition, are concentrated mainly in three areas: Amazonia, the Congo Basin and South-East Asia. In recent decades, there has been a catastrophically rapid reduction of precisely these forests, called the "lungs of the planet." They are in danger of total annihilation. Over the past 200 years, the world's forest area has halved; annually the forest area is reduced by 25 million hectares. See fig. 4-5. The most vulnerable ecosystems are tropical forests, their area is reduced by 11 million hectares annually. Most intensively deforested in the Amazon, Indonesia. Africa's forests may soon disappear altogether. The destruction of forests at such a pace has catastrophic consequences for the whole world: the supply of oxygen to the atmosphere is reduced, the “greenhouse effect” is increasing, and the climate is changing.

The main reason for the loss of forests and the decline in its quality in economically developed countries is now acid rain. They affected forests on the territory of about 30 million hectares. Most developing countries are characterized by a decrease in the provision of forest resources for other reasons. Forests are reduced to arable land and plantations, for construction. In addition, wood is widely used for firewood: 70% of the population in developing countries use wood for cooking and heating homes. See fig. 5-011.

Resources of the oceans

The ocean covers 71% of the Earth's surface. See fig. 5-012. As a result of research by oceanologists from all over the world, including domestic ones (Yu.M. Shokalsky, V.Yu. Vize, N.N. Zubov, P.P. Shirshov and others), it was proved that the World Ocean is a huge pantry natural resources. This is primarily sea water, which is believed to quench the "thirst" of mankind. Desalinated sea water is already being used in Kuwait, Algeria, Libya, Kazakhstan, the United States, Bermuda and the Bahamas. In addition, sea water contains 75 chemical elements that can be used in industrial processing.

The bottom, and especially the shelf of the ocean, are rich in mineral resources. See fig. 5-013. Their use goes back hundreds of years. The first of the marine mineral industries was salt, later people learned to extract magnesium, bromine, iodine, sodium, and phosphorus. About 100 countries of the world now have a developed offshore mining industry.

Currently, the extraction of oil and gas from offshore fields has acquired the greatest importance for the world economy. At least half of the world's oil and gas resources are contained in the depths of the World Ocean. Many deposits have been discovered on the shelf: over 500 - off the coasts of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico, about 100 - in the North Sea, over 40 - in the Persian Gulf. The shelves of Southeast Asia, the Barents and Bering Seas are promising. Offshore oil and gas production is carried out by the USA, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Great Britain, Norway, the Netherlands, and India.

In addition, sea mining of coal (Japan, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand), iron ores (Japan, Canada, Finland), copper-nickel ores (Great Britain, Canada), mercury ores (Turkey), tin ores (Indonesia, Myanmar) is carried out. , Thailand, Malaysia) placers of gold (Alaska, the Pacific coast of North America), diamonds (Namibia). From the bottom of the sea, various Construction Materials: sand, gravel, shell rock, corals. On an industrial scale, sodium, chlorine, magnesium and bromine are extracted from sea water.

At the bottom of the World Ocean (mainly within the Pacific and Indian), at depths from 100 to 7000 m, ferromanganese nodules occur - a promising complex raw material for the metallurgical industry. They contain: manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, copper, zinc, molybdenum and other metals. Pi huge reserves of nodules, the total amount of metals contained in them is estimated in millions of tons. See fig. 5-1.

The energy potential of the ocean (energy of the tidal wave, currents, waves) is estimated at up to 6 billion kWh. In 1967, the first tidal power station was built in France (Saint-Malo Bay in the north-west of the country), and now similar stations operate in the USA, Russia, Argentina, Canada, and China. At present, the use of sea thermal energy is gaining practical importance due to the temperature difference between the upper and lower layers of water. The most favorable for the construction of sea thermal stations are tropical and subtropical regions, where the water temperature on the surface is 30°C, and at a depth of 400-500 m - 8-10°C.

The biological resources of the World Ocean are formed by animals and plants; there are about 150 thousand species of them, their total biomass is approximately 35 billion tons (animals account for 32.5 billion tons, and algae - 1.7 billion tons). Annually, the ocean supplies about 80 million tons of fish, seafood (algae, mollusks, crustaceans, mammals), providing 20% of the population's need for protein (for developing countries, this figure exceeds 50%). See fig. 5-014.

Currently, fishing covers no more than 1/4 of the surface of the oceans. Since ancient times, the main fishing areas have been the northern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the postwar years, new fishing areas appeared in the tropical and southern parts of the World Ocean. Before the Second World War, the largest catches were in the Atlantic Ocean, somewhat smaller ones in the Pacific and very insignificant ones in the Indian. Today, most of the world's catch falls on the Pacific Ocean, mainly its northwestern part (the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan). The species composition of catches is very diverse: herring, cod, saury, greenling, sea bass, flounder, crabs, squids, octopuses, etc.

No matter how big biological resources oceans, their reserves will be steadily depleted. In addition, the marine industry cannot provide as much production as it is needed. To meet the needs for fishery objects, farms are important mariculture- cultivation of marine organisms (mainly algae, crustaceans and mollusks) in artificial underwater farms and plantations. Many countries in East and Southeast Asia have experience in marine animal husbandry. For example, the cultivation of oysters in Japan is three hundred years old. Now oyster farms are widespread in Italy, Portugal, England, the USA and other countries. Mussels are cultivated in Japan, the Republic of Korea, China, and the Netherlands. Shrimps, lobsters, lobsters, crabs became the objects of mariculture. Mariculture farms are highly productive. Artificial breeding of pearl mollusks in Japan, begun at the end of the last century, undermined the world's pearl fishery, obtained by searching for shells in the sea. Fish farms have also been created, where salmon (chum, pink salmon, salmon), sturgeon (sturgeon, beluga, stellate sturgeon), cyprinids (fish), cod, flounder, haddock and other species have become breeding objects. According to experts, by breeding fish, its catches can be increased by 5 times, which will satisfy the growing population in animal proteins.

The transport significance of the World Ocean contributes to the development of international exchanges and trade. Its shores and water areas attract thousands of tourists. The ocean is the repository of most waste economic activity humanity.

Detailed solution topic Topic 2 in geography for students in grade 10, authors V.P. Maksakovskiy A basic level of 2017

Gdz Geography workbook for grade 10 can be found

Task 1. Based on knowledge from previous geography courses and additional sources of information, compile a concise-reference table of endowment with natural resources with examples of resource-rich, resource-sufficient and resource-poor countries.

Let's trace the resource availability of oil in the countries of the world. Given the known oil reserves and the current level of its production, a number of resource-abundant countries can be distinguished by oil reserves (OPEC countries, the Persian Gulf, in particular Saudi Arabia, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait are provided with oil for more than 100 years). Resource-sufficient countries include Iran, Venezuela, Mexico. Countries whose proven oil reserves will last for 20 years or less can be classified as resource-poor (Russia, China, the United States).

Task 2. Analyze the data in Table. 1 in the text and tables 3, 4, 5 and 19 in the "Appendices". Calculate how many years the world's proven reserves of coal, oil, natural gas and iron ore will last with modern level their prey (see instructions, p. 59). What problems arise in connection with this?

Calculating the exact number of years that known reserves of mineral resources will last is difficult, since new deposits are discovered every year. It can also change the rate of extraction of mineral resources over the years.

Task 3. Using the text of the textbook, the map of the world's mineral resources in the atlas and tables 3, 4, 5 in the "Appendices", analyze the distribution of fuel minerals. Name the countries with significant reserves of coal, oil, their largest basins. What conclusions can be drawn from the analysis?

The main part of coal resources falls on Asia, North America and Europe. Among the countries in terms of coal reserves, the United States, Russia, and China are in the lead. The largest coal basins in the world: Appalachian (USA), Pennsylvania (USA), New South Wales (Australia), Donetsk (Ukraine), Tunguska (Russia), Lena and Kansk-Achinsk basin (Russia).

The main oil reserves are also located in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in a relatively small number of major basins. In terms of the number of giant oil-bearing basins and reserves, the Persian Gulf region stands out. The world leader is Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq. The largest oil and gas basins in the world: the Persian Gulf, Lake Maracaibo, Western Siberia, Alaska, etc.

Thus, the gravitation of fuel mineral reserves to the strata of the sedimentary cover within the internal and marginal troughs of the ancient platforms is clearly traced.

Task 4. Analyze fig. 2. Calculate how much mineral raw materials were extracted from the bowels of the Earth in 1900, 1950, 1980 and 2005. on a per capita basis. Compare indicators, establish a trend and explain it.

(data on the population are taken from the textbook: 1900 - Fig. 7, p. 66, data for other years - Table 11 Appendix)

Thus, population growth is accompanied by an increase in the extraction of mineral raw materials, which is used in human economic activity.

Task 5. Analyze fig. 4, a map of world land resources in the atlas and tab. 6 in "Appendices". Compare the provision of individual regions and countries with arable land. Give examples of land-rich and land-poor countries. Based on knowledge from the course of geography of continents and oceans, explain the reasons for such differences. Justify your opinion.

The greatest availability of arable land is typical for Europe, the CIS countries, North America, Asia (India, China). The amount of arable land is influenced by natural conditions; in the tropical and equatorial zones, the share of arable land is several times less than in the temperate zone. Also, this indicator is influenced by the number of population than more population country, the more arable land is needed to provide it with food.

Task 6. Find on the Internet and view satellite images of the deserts: Sahara, Arabian, Gobi, Kalahari, Australian deserts. Use them to characterize the process of desertification.

Anthropogenic desertification has covered more than 1 billion hectares and continues to increase. Severe desertification has become widespread in Asia, Africa, North and South America, and Australia. Desertification entails complete and irreversible land degradation. Large investments and a long time are needed to restore lands affected by severe desertification.

Task 7. Using fig. 5, compare the provision of large regions of the world with river runoff resources. Give examples of countries most and least endowed with fresh water resources. On the map in the atlas, consider the location of the world's major reservoirs, draw conclusions and use them to confirm the text of the textbook.

The most prosperous regions of the world in terms of river runoff resources are Latin America, Equatorial Africa, Southeast Asia, North America and the CIS. Among the world leaders are Suriname (Latin America), Congo (Equatorial Africa), Canada. Also in the top ten are Russia, Norway, New Zealand, Brazil, Liberia. It is in these regions that the largest reservoirs are located. The regions least provided with fresh water resources are: North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Algeria, etc.), Europe, Southwest Asia (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq, etc.), East Asia (China, India).

Task 8. Analyze the data in Table. 7 in the "Appendices" and give a comparative description of the hydropower potential of large regions of the world.

River runoff is also widely used for hydropower generation. The world's exploitable hydropower potential is estimated at 8 trillion kWh of possible electricity generation. Among the regions of the world, Foreign Asia has the greatest potential (28.1% of the total potential), Latin America (20%) is in second place, followed by the CIS (15.6%), Africa (13.8%), North America ( 12.5%. Foreign Europe (8.8%), Australia and Oceania (1.2%) have the least potential. More than 1/2 of this potential falls on just six countries: China, Russia, Brazil, Canada, India, DR Congo.

Task 9. Analyze fig. 6. Using this picture, as well as the main text, characterize the two main forest belts of the planet. Give an assessment of the provision of individual countries, highlighting countries that are very rich and very poor in forest resources.

The forests of the world form two huge belts, northern and southern. The northern forest belt is located in the zone of temperate and partly cold and subtropical climates. It accounts for 1/2 of all forests in the world. The southern forest belt is located mainly in the zone of tropical and equatorial climates. It accounts for 1/2 of all forests and the total stock of timber.

The richest countries in timber reserves are: Russia, Canada, Brazil, the countries of Equatorial Africa. The countries located in the tropical belt have the smallest reserves (Algeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, etc.).

Task 10. Analyze the map of the mineral resources of the World Ocean in the atlas. Give general characteristics these resources. Determine the areas of the continental shelf and the deep-sea bed of the Ocean, the richest in mineral resources. Is it possible, on the basis of the analysis, to outline the prospects for the development of the offshore mining industry?

The mineral resources of the bottom of the World Ocean include the resources of the continental shelf (oil and natural gas) and ferromanganese ores of the deep seabed.

The mineral resources of the World Ocean are divided into the resources of the continental shelf and the deep seabed. The resources of the continental shelf include: oil and gas, tin ores, amber, phosphorites, etc. Iron-manganese ores gravitate towards the deep part of the World Ocean. The largest oil and gas basins on the shelf of the Atlantic Ocean have been explored off the coasts of Europe (North Sea), Africa (Guinean), Central America (Caribbean), smaller ones - off the coasts of Canada and the USA, Brazil. Tin ore is actively mined in the shelf area of Southeast Asia. Around the “tin islands” of this region, they can be traced at a distance of 10–15 km from the coast and to a depth of 35 m. Large deposits of phosphorites were found on the shelf of the western and eastern coasts of the United States, in the Atlantic coast of Africa, along the Pacific coast of South America. The largest accumulations of ferromanganese nodules are located in the Pacific Ocean, where they are divided into three zones - northern, middle and southern.

Task 11. Using the text of the textbook, make a classification scheme "Natural Resources of the World Ocean" in your notebook. Apply it to prove the position that the World Ocean is a pantry of various natural resources.

Natural resources of the World Ocean:

1 - sea water (serves as an important source of magnesium, bromine, iodine and other chemical elements);

2 - mineral resources of the bottom of the World Ocean (resources of the continental shelf: oil and natural gas, ferromanganese ores of the deep seabed;

3 – energy resources of the World Ocean (contained in daily tidal motions, in the energy of sea waves and temperature gradient);

4 - biological resources (animals and plants).

Task 12. Based on the knowledge of the physical, economic and social geography of your republic, territory, region, give examples: 1) recreational and medical; 2) recreational and health-improving; 3) recreational and sports; 4) recreational and educational territories. Use your own observations and impressions whenever possible. Prepare an album (transform) dedicated to this territory. Are there any World Heritage Sites in your republic, krai, region?

Recreational potential of the Republic of Altai. Altai is a unique natural complex rich in recreational resources. First of all, they should include: natural and climatic conditions, a large number of sunny days, the presence of mountain climatic zones, etc. About a quarter of the region's territory has the status of a specially protected area included in the World Heritage List under the auspices of UNESCO. Also tourist attractions are Lake Teletskoye, Altai and other nature reserves, Belukha mountain, Ukok plateau, caves, barrows, Ulalinsky Paleolithic site - the oldest site of primitive man, etc.

Task 13. In April 2010, a fire broke out on an oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, which led to a large-scale environmental disaster. Using the Internet and a geographic information system, prepare a message about this environmental disaster.

In April 2010, an accident occurred on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, which led to the explosion of the platform and the release of a huge amount of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The oil spill lasted 152 days from April 20 to September 19, 2010, until the well, from which the leak occurred, was completely plugged. During this time, more than 5 million barrels of oil got into the bay. This accident led to the mass death of the fauna and flora of the bay, a sharp reduction, and in some regions a complete ban on marine fishing. The oil slick also reached the coast of the United States, causing damage to the coastline (death of plants and animals, pollution of soil and groundwater), an increase in the number of people suffering from skin diseases, damage to the tourism sector, and the fishing industry.

Task 14. Using the Internet and other means mass media, give some examples each of: (a) positive results of environmental activities and the implementation of environmental policies; b) the negative impact of anthropogenic interventions in the environment.

A) Creation of nature protection areas (reserves, reserves and parks), reduction of carbon dioxide emissions in cities as a result of a partial ban on the use of cars in the city center, installation of cleaning filters in factories, etc.

B) Deforestation, pollution of water and soil as a result of excessive use of mineral fertilizers, emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere and as a result of acid rain, etc.

Task 15.

15.1. Based on the acquired knowledge, name the causes of the following phenomena: a) in the second half of the 20th century. the degree of "humanization" of the geographical environment has increased dramatically; b) in the development of minerals, it is most advantageous to use their territorial combinations; c) in our time, the "load" on the land is increasing, and the provision of land resources is decreasing; d) the growth of water consumption creates a real threat of a shortage of fresh water.

A) The geographical environment is that part of the earth's nature with which human society directly interacts in its life. That is why her condition plays an important role for a person.

B) A significant part of minerals is presented in the form of ores, which combine several types of minerals. Their joint production reduces the cost of production and the negative impact on the environment.

C) Since the world's population is growing, more arable land is required for growing crops. With irrational use (pollution, erosion), the amount of suitable land decreases.

D) In recent years, water consumption has increased both in the housing and communal sector and for agriculture. At the same time, part of fresh water, as a result of its use and pollution, becomes unsuitable for further use, which leads to a reduction in the volume of clean drinking water.

15.2. Formulate at least three problematic questions in the text of the topic. Suggest answers to them and discuss them with your friends.

What are the causes of fresh water scarcity? What possible solutions can you suggest?

Oil production on the continental shelf, pros and cons?

Alternative energy sources, their pros and cons?

15.3. Explore text maps and atlas maps of the world's natural resources. Determine what cartographic methods they are compiled.

Cartographic image methods, graphic methods used on maps to show the spatial distribution of phenomena, their combinations, connections and development. When compiling maps of the natural resources of the world, the following are most often used: the method of quantitative background, the method of signs, chart diagrams, signs of movement, etc.

Block of self-control and mutual control

How would you explain:

1. What are the similarities and differences between the concepts of "nature" and "geographical environment"?

The geographic environment is that part of the earth's nature with which human society directly interacts in its life and production activities at this stage of historical development. The concepts of "nature" and "geographical environment" are fundamentally similar. However, the first is broader.

2. Why can't one judge the availability of resources only by the size of reserves?

Resource availability is the ratio between the amount of natural resources and the amount of their use. It is expressed as the number of years for which this resource(for non-renewable), or its reserves per capita (for renewable). The resource endowment indicator is affected by the scale of extraction (consumption) of resources, so it is impossible to judge only by data on reserves.

3. What are the changes taking place in the structure of the world land fund?

In the structure of the land fund, the share of arable land is increasing, as a result of a constant increase in the area of land used in agriculture. At the same time, the share of depleted lands and lands subject to desertification is increasing as a result of irrational land use in agriculture.

4. What are the reasons for the aggravation of the water problem of mankind?

Fresh water resources make up only 3% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. A significant part of them is conserved in glaciers, thus limiting human access to them. At the same time, water consumption is growing every year. The main consumer of water is agriculture, where irretrievable water consumption is high. It is also worth considering the uneven distribution of water resources across countries.

5. What are the negative effects of acid precipitation?

As a result of acid precipitation, water bodies and soil are polluted, which leads to the death of flora and fauna on the territory.

6. Why is international cooperation needed to solve environmental problems?

In nature, there is a constant cycle of substances that affects all regions of the world. So emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide by the UK fall in the form of acid precipitation over the territory of other countries (located to the east of Great Britain, on the path of the western transfer of air masses). Thus, all countries are connected with each other, which is why the measures taken by individual countries are not enough to carry out environmental protection activities. The efforts of the entire world community are needed.

What do you think:

1. Why should the interaction between society and nature be considered not as a biological, but, above all, as a public, social problem?

Because the interaction of society and nature today has become one of the main universal problems.

2. What is the rational use of non-renewable and renewable natural resources?

The rational use of non-renewable resources consists in their consistent use with the expectation of providing them for the near future. When using renewable resources, it is necessary to take into account the time that will be spent on their restoration and, based on this, use them.

3. What do the words of the great German geographer Alexander Humboldt mean: “Forests precede man, and deserts accompany him”?

As a result of human activities, the proportion of land that is subject to erosion and desertification and is no longer suitable for agricultural use is increasing.

4. What role does geographical science play in solving the problems of nature management and ecology?

With its help, you can study the causes of environmental problems, find ways to solve them.

Did you know:

1. What are the world's largest pools of which of the following types of minerals are indicated on the map: 1) coal; 2) oil; 3) iron ore?

The map shows iron ore deposits: Lorraine iron ore basin (Europe), Kirunavara (Sweden), Krivorozhskoe (Ukraine), Lake Superior deposit (USA), Carajas and Itabira (Brazil), etc.

2. Which of the following countries are among the countries with the highest and lowest availability of arable land: Australia, Japan, Germany, China, Argentina?

The highest availability of arable land - Australia, Argentina, Germany; the smallest - Japan, China.

3. Which of the following countries are among the countries with the highest and lowest water resources: Canada, Brazil, Congo, Saudi Arabia, Egypt?

The greatest availability of water resources - Canada, Brazil, Congo; the smallest is Saudi Arabia, Egypt.

Can you:

1. Put the following countries, mentioned in the text and on text maps, on the contour map of the world from memory: Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, India, Egypt, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Africa, Mexico, Argentina?

2. Define the concepts of "geographical environment", "resource availability", "geographical resource science"?

The geographical environment is that part of the earth's nature with which human society directly interacts in its life and production activities at a given stage of historical development.

Resource availability is the ratio between the amount of natural resources and the amount of their use. It is expressed in the number of years for which a given resource should last (for non-renewable), or its reserves and per capita (for renewable).

Geography of resource science is a science that studies the distribution and structure of certain types of natural resources, the issue of their protection, reproduction and rational use.

3. Explain the main patterns of distribution of fuel and ore resources of the world?

Fuel minerals are of sedimentary origin and are located in areas where the sedimentary cover accompanies the internal and marginal troughs of ancient platforms. So the main part of coal resources falls on the Northern Hemisphere - Asia, North America and Europe. The main oil reserves are also located in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in a relatively small number of major basins. In terms of the number of giant oil-bearing basins and reserves, the Persian Gulf region stands out in particular, in terms of the number of gas-bearing basins, Western Siberia is the leader in Russia.

Ore minerals usually accompany foundations and ledges (shields) of ancient platforms, as well as folded areas. In such areas, they often form huge ore (metallogenic) belts. Brazil, Australia, Russia, Ukraine, China have the largest reserves of iron ores, Guinea, Australia, Brazil, Jamaica - bauxites, Chile, the USA, Canada - copper ores.

4. Name the seas and bays, in the waters of which the main offshore oil and natural gas fields are concentrated?

Answer: North Sea, Baltic Sea, Caspian Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of Mexico, Persian Gulf, etc.

5. Tell us about the size and structure of the world land fund?

The global land fund is 13.4 billion hectares. It is understood as the entire surface of the land suitable for human economic activity. The structure of the land fund includes: agricultural land (primarily arable land), land occupied by settlements, land for nature protection, forest land, etc.

6. Give a quantitative description of the water resources of the land and the “water ration” of the planet?

Fresh water (land) resources make up only 3% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. The vast majority of fresh water is “conserved” in the glaciers of Antarctica, Greenland, in the ice of the Arctic and in mountain glaciers. The main source of meeting the needs of mankind in fresh water has been and remains river water (the “water ration” of the planet). The main consumer of fresh water is agriculture, where irretrievable water consumption is very high, especially for irrigation. Industrial, energy and domestic water consumption is also growing all the time. Fresh water reserves on Earth are distributed extremely unevenly. In the equatorial zone and in the northern part of the temperate zone, it is available in abundance and even in excess, and in the arid zone of the Earth, which covers about 1/3 of the land area, water shortage is felt especially acutely.

7. Explain how deforestation affects the planet's gene pool and biodiversity?

Forests are a habitat for a huge number of plants, insects, birds and animals. By destroying their habitat, we are accelerating the rate of extinction different types, which can lead to the complete extinction of the species, which affects the decrease in the biodiversity of the planet.

8. Give brief description recreational resources?

Recreational resources include both natural and anthropogenic objects and phenomena that can be used for recreation, tourism and treatment. Recreational resources are divided into: recreational and medical (mineral waters), recreational and health-improving (beaches), recreational and sports (ski resorts) and recreational and educational (historical monuments). To the greatest extent vacationers and tourists are attracted by such countries as Italy, Spain, France, Switzerland, Bulgaria, India, China, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, etc., where rich natural and recreational resources are combined with cultural and historical attractions.

9. Evaluate how true the following statements are, and, if necessary, give the correct answer:

a) the world's general geological reserves of coal far exceed those of oil - TRUE;

b) arable land prevails in the structure of the world land fund - FALSE (unproductive and unproductive (deserts, glaciers, etc.) lands prevail in the structure of the land fund);

c) Earth's fresh water resources account for only 10% of the planet's total water resources - FALSE (fresh water resources account for 3% of the planet's total water resources);

d) the main way to solve environmental problems lies in the transition to a fundamentally new production technology - WRONG (solving environmental problems requires integrated approach, which includes both the search for new production technologies and the search for new energy sources, water purification technologies, air, soil, as well as technologies for agriculture, etc.)

As an integral energy characteristic of the wind
The specific power of the wind flow per unit area of the cross section of the flow is widely used. Theoretical
wind energy potential is estimated using the formula:
P = 0.5Pcp(F3)cp.
where P is specific power [W/m2]; pep- average density air
[kg/m3]; (FV)Cp- average speed cube.

The average cube of wind speed can be expressed in terms of the average
speed as:
(V\ =1.9(Vcp)3.
and the wind energy potential is equal to
P = 0.95Pcp(Fcp)3.
As an example of the energy characteristics of the wind in the Tomsk region for the seasons of the year, we can cite data from weather stations. presented in table 7.
The seasons indicated in the table do not coincide with the calendar ones, but
are homogeneous in wind regime: winter (December, January, February), spring (March, April, May June), summer (July, August, September), autumn (October, November).
Specific power maxima correspond to transitional seasons. The main minimum refers to the summer period, and the secondary to the winter.
Geographically, the distribution of specific power can be characterized by two zones: the southern part and the floodplain of the Ob River - here P
varies on average per year within 150-200 W/m. and on the rest
the territory of the region, specific power indicators do not exceed
100 W/m". A schematic map of the distribution of the average annual specific wind power in the territory of the Tomsk region is shown in fig.
The given characteristics of the wind energy potential correspond to a weather vane height of 10 m.
To assess the wind potential of the territory, in particular the gross one. the following method can be used. Gross potential is calculated as the total energy of the system of wind turbines // height. distributed evenly over the territory at distances. excluding the mutual influence of power plants. Usually considered. that the disturbed wind flow is fully restored on
a distance equal to 20// from the wind farm. This condition determines the order of placement of wind turbines on the territory. Then, on an area of area S (m) during time T (usually a year), the total wind energy of all installations is determined as

where Vh tj are wind speed bins and their relative duration.
Technical wind potential of the territory

and can be determined taking into account two circumstances.
In fact, 5t is part of the territory S. remaining after subtracting the areas of agricultural land, industrial and water management
areas, buildings, etc.
When determining the technical potential of the territory

Hydropower. Hydropower potential

Hydropower resources are part of the territory's water resources. which can be used to generate energy.
The hydraulic energy of rivers is due to the projection of gravity on
direction of water flow, which is determined by the difference
water levels at the beginning and at the end of the considered section of the river. At
level difference H [m] over the length of the section / [m] and the average water flow
О [m/s], watercourse power Р |W| will be:
P=pgOH= 9810QH [W],
where p is the water density, kg/m3; g is the free fall acceleration, m/s2.
Consequently, hydropower installations carry out
energy transformation of either water pressure or water content at
some minimum flow velocity.
For the useful power produced by the hydroelectric station, the resulting efficiency of the installation is taken into account. consisting of a hydraulic turbine, a generator, a voltage stabilization system.
As for wind energy, the hydropower potential of the region's watercourses is divided into theoretical or gross, technical and economic.

Thus, by sequentially dividing the watercourse into characteristic sections, the theoretical potential of the corresponding sections and the total energy potential of the watercourse are determined. The boundaries of the plots usually correspond to the places of breaks in the longitudinal profile of the watercourse. As an example, in fig. 4 shows a longitudinal profile of one of the small rivers of the Tomsk region.

The calculation of the longitudinal profile of the watercourse is usually carried out
using topographic maps at a scale of at least 1:100,000.
Calculation of water consumption in each characteristic section can be carried out
different ways. The obvious option is the processing of perennial
observations. If such data are not available, then maps of the study area at a scale of 1:100000 with isolines of the mean annual runoff modules M [l, (s km")] should be used. For the average long-term
the norms of the annual flow of the river should delineate the territory of its basin
to the point under consideration and calculate the desired value as the weighted average value of the module over the contoured catchment area.
In addition to these, there are other ways to calculate the cadastre of watercourses.
Usually the water content of rivers. and with it the hydropower potential
varies greatly by season and month. In particular, three hydrological seasons are distinguished for the Tomsk region: spring flood, summer-autumn season and winter low water. Minimum expenses waters are observed in winter; accordingly, the winter season is considered limiting for hydropower.
The highest water content is typical for the spring flood. In
snowmelt time, the intensity of which in the forest zone is relatively
is small, a huge amount of water accumulates in the floodplains of rivers and lakes. swamps and other natural reservoirs on the surface of the territory. At the same time, water accumulates in underground aquifers composed of loose rocks. These reserves maintain the high water content of the rivers for a long time, so the flood is large in volume and extended in time. Increase the duration of floods and retaining phenomena in the mouth sections of tributaries from the side of the rivers - water receivers.
The flood front moves from south to north. On the
in the south it begins in mid-April, and in the north and northeast - in
the last decade of this month. The duration of the flood is 50-100 days and depends on its water content, the size of the river, the region of the region. During floods, 40-50% of the annual flow passes on the rivers
northern rivers and 60-70% of southern ones.
Summer and autumn precipitation form rain floods and replenish groundwater reserves. As a result, on the rivers of the Tomsk region,
the basins of which are located in the forest zone, a more even distribution of runoff is created than in other zones.
The summer-autumn season in the south of the region begins after the recession of the flood in June-July. In the northern regions of the region, this season begins 20-30 days later. The length of the season decreases from
from south to north from 140 to 95 days, and the share of runoff in the total volume per year increases, respectively, from 10 to 30%.
Some small rivers with weak underground feeding, in the absence of rain, may dry up in summer.
The beginning of the winter low water is determined by the beginning of freezing. it
the longest hydrological season, which begins at the end of October in the northeast of the region and at the beginning of November in the south and continues. respectively from 190 to 170 days. In the same direction, from north to south, the share of winter runoff in the annual course increases from 10 to 20%.

Prolonged ice phenomena significantly limit
opportunities for the practical use of hydropower through
small hydroelectric power plants.

The technical potential is a part of the gross energy potential of the watercourse. In traditional hydropower, the technical potential is defined as gross, reduced by
losses of hydropower in the process of its conversion into electricity at
HPPs, as well as losses from unused sections of the watercourse, various
reservoir losses, etc.
Thus, in dam-type hydroelectric power plants, the technical potential of hydropower is the energy maximum of the generated electricity that can be obtained on a given watercourse using modern technical means and energy conversion technologies.
In addition to dam hydroelectric power plants, in small hydropower, especially of the class
micro HPPs, diversion and run-of-river hydropower plants are widespread. Such hydroelectric power plants use only part of the runoff
and. usually regulate it. In this case, the concept of technical potential practically does not make sense and should be considered energy characteristics of the microhydro power plant itself.
It should be noted the prospects of damless hydropower plants in microhydropower, determined by their environmental friendliness.
simplicity of design and low cost at a sufficiently high
the level of reliability and quality of power supply to consumers.
For the practical application of damless hydroelectric power plants, it is often very
efficient small rivers. In addition to the hydropower potential of the region. for such micro HPPs, it is very important to identify sections of rivers and territories suitable for local use of hydropower:
large differences in terrain marks, high water content and current speed. Local assessment of factors determining hydropower potential, makes it possible to ensure a fairly correct agreement between its general estimates and the possibilities for the energy use of the watercourse with maximum technical and economic efficiency.
The possibilities of using hydropower are largely determined by the realized water pressure, which, first of all, depends on the terrain, which determines the longitudinal slopes of the rivers.
in different areas. The rivers of the West Siberian Plain lay
their channels in relatively easily eroded loose soils. Therefore, the longitudinal profile of their channel tends to an equilibrium profile, which is characterized by maximum slopes of the river in the upper reaches with
their gradual decrease towards the mouth. However, the difference in the resistance of the underlying rocks to erosion leads to a violation of the smooth shape of the longitudinal profile of the channel. For example, the change in the slope of the riverbed of the Kyiv Egan river according to its duration is shown.
Increasing river slopes are typically associated with Crossings of rising tectonic structures. There. where the rate of uplift exceeds the rate of river incision, the slopes of the channel increase. and the valley becomes narrower. The slopes of small rivers can often be higher.
As an example, in fig. 5 shows the anomalous slopes of the rivers of the Tomsk region. The identified areas are potentially suitable for hydroelectric installations.

An attempt to streamline the accounting and evaluation of world hydropower resources was made at the World Energy Conferences (MIREC).

N kW = 9.81 QH,

where Q is the flow rate of the watercourse, m 3 / s; H - fall, m

Power is determined for three typical flow rates: Q = 95% - flow rate, 95% security of the time; Q = 50% - security 50% of the time; Q cf - arithmetic mean.

Theoretical gross (gross) potential hydropower potential(or general hydropower resources) :

1. surface, taking into account the energy of flowing waters on the territory of an entire region or a single river basin; 2. river, taking into account the energy of the watercourse.

			gross power, mln kW at expenses
	95% security	50% security			95% security	50% security

Brazil
Venezuela				Pakistan



				Australia

				Ivory Coast


Norway
Portugal				Congo (Brazzaville)
Finland				Madagascar

Germany

Yugoslavia

Operating net (or net) hydropower potential:

1. technical (or technical hydropower resources) - part of the theoretical gross river potential that can technically be used or is already being used (the world technical potential is estimated at approximately 12,300 billion kWh); 2. economic (or economic hydropower resources) - part of the technical potential, the use of which in the existing real conditions is economically justified (i.e., economically beneficial for use); economic hydropower resources in individual countries are given in Table 4.

In accordance with this, the total value of the world's potential hydropower resources of the river runoff is given in Table 2.

Table 2 Hydropower resources (total hydropower river potential) of selected continents

continent	hydropower resources	% of global total	specific value of hydropower resources, kW / sq. km
		billion kWh



North America
South America
Australia
Total for the globe
former USSR

The above calculations at one time made significant changes to the previous ideas about the distribution of hydropower resources across the continents. Particularly large changes were obtained in Africa and Asia. These data show that almost 36% of the world's hydropower reserves are concentrated on the Asian continent, while about 19% is concentrated in Africa, which was considered the richest in hydropower resources. In table. Table 3 compares the data characterizing the distribution of hydropower resources across the continents, obtained from various calculations.

Table 3. Saturation of hydropower resources on the territory of the continents, thousand kWh per 1 sq. km. km

Table 4 Comparison of data on the distribution of potential hydropower resources by continent (% of the total for the globe)

continent	according to the US Geological Survey	according to Oxford Atlas	according to the Yugoslav delegate to IV MIREC	according to the UN	according to the calculation made in the USSR



North America
South America
Australia
Earth as a whole

If the annual runoff of the Congo Basin was previously estimated at 500-570 mm of layer, then at present it is estimated at only 370 mm.

For the Niger River, a runoff layer of 567 mm was taken, but in fact it is about 300 mm.

The same happens with data on the average runoff layer, which are good indicators of the hydropower potential of individual continents (see Table 7).

This table shows that the height of the continent and the magnitude of the runoff, i.e. in terms of key energy indicators, Africa ranks far behind Asia and almost on par with North America.

Due to the high level of industrial development, the countries of Western Europe and North America for a long time were ahead of all other countries in terms of the degree of development of hydropower resources. Already in the mid-20s, the hydro potential was developed in Western Europe by about 6%, and in North America, which had the largest hydropower capacities during this period, by 4%. Half a century later, the corresponding figures for Western Europe were about 60%, and for North America - about 35%. Already in the mid-70s, the absolute capacity of hydroelectric power plants in Western Europe exceeded those in any other region of the world.

In developing countries, the relatively high rate of hydropower use is due in large part to a very low baseline. With a more than 50-fold increase in installed hydropower capacity over half a century, developing countries in the mid-1970s lagged behind developed countries by more than 4.5 times both in terms of power plant capacity and electricity generation. And if in the developed countries the hydro potential was used by about 45% in the mid-70s, then in developing countries - only by 5%. For the whole world, this figure as a whole is 18%. Thus, it is still typical for the world to use only a small part of the hydropower potential.

In connection with the exhaustion of economic hydropower resources in a number of countries, interest in the construction of pumped storage power plants (PSPPs) has increased significantly in these countries. In Europe, they began to build special pumped storage power plants in the 20-30s, but they have received great development since the mid-50s. Currently, more than half of the world's PSPs are located in the EU countries. In the US and Canada, pumped-storage installations in the past were less common than in Europe, because. these countries had large reserves of economic hydropower resources. However, interest in pumped storage power plants has also increased in recent years in the United States and Canada. Also of great interest in the world recently is the use of the energy of sea tides to generate electricity, this is a promising direction in hydropower, because. The energy of sea tides is renewable and practically inexhaustible - it is a huge source of energy. Many countries already have tidal power plants (TPPs) in operation. France has advanced farthest in this direction.

Hydropower resources of the world. Abstract: Hydropower resources of the world The countries with the most hydropower potential

Hydropower. Hydropower potential

Prolonged ice phenomena significantly limit opportunities for the practical use of hydropower through small hydroelectric power plants.

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Prolonged ice phenomena significantly limit
opportunities for the practical use of hydropower through
small hydroelectric power plants.