Global problems world economy: social, ecological, demographic, food.
PLAN
Introduction 3
1. Global problems of our time: essence, role and economic aspects 5
2. Environmental problems of the world economy 9
3. Main characteristics of the demographic problem 15
4. The problem of overcoming poverty and underdevelopment 17
5. World food problem 20
Conclusion 26
References 29
The globalization of economic activity has led to the fact that the mechanism of the world economy is increasingly affected by problems that the world community first spoke about in the late 60s and early 70s. These problems were called global, and the term "globalistics" was introduced into scientific use as a specific direction of international economic research.
Most studies agree that, despite all the variety of global problems, they have a common specificity that distinguishes them from other problems of the world economy. This specificity of global problems lies in the fact that they have a number of common features:
· They are global in nature, that is, they affect the interests and destinies of all (or at least the majority) of humanity;
Threaten humanity with a serious regression in the conditions of life and further development productive forces(or even the death of human civilization as such);
· Need an urgent and immediate solution;
· Interrelated;
· They demand joint actions of the entire world community for their solution.
Based on these signs, the following problems of the world economy began to be classified as global: overcoming poverty and backwardness; peace, disarmament, prevention of a world nuclear war (problems of peace and demilitarization); food; ecological; demographic.
As human civilization develops, new global problems may arise and are already arising. Thus, the problem of the development and use of the resources of the World Ocean, as well as the problem of the exploration and use of outer space, began to be classified as global.
The changes that took place in the 1970s and 1980s, and especially in the 1990s, allow us to talk about a change in priorities in global problems. If back in the 60s - 70s. The problem of preventing a world nuclear war was considered the main one, but now some experts put the environmental problem in the first place, others - the demographic problem, and still others - the problem of poverty and backwardness.
The issue of establishing the priority of global problems is not only of scientific but also of great practical importance. According to estimates made by various research centers, the annual costs of mankind to solve global problems should be at least $1 trillion, that is, about 2.5% of world GDP in the late 1990s, calculated at purchasing power parity. Hence, the rating of a particular problem and the financing of its solution in accordance with the rating become more important.
The main purpose of this term paper– to study the main aspects of the global problems of the world economy. The work consists of five sections in which the problem posed is studied sequentially.
Any sphere of activity in its development faces general or more specific tasks and problems. Human economic activity is no exception. In terms of level and scale, however, such problems are different. They also manifest themselves differently in the economic sphere. Some, affecting mainly the interests of direct participants, are decided by the subjects of economic relations themselves: entrepreneurs, enterprises; others require one form or another of state participation; still others involve interstate action.
At the same time, there are such problems of the development of society that concern everyone and everyone, the entire world community, that is, they are of a universal nature. This is the first fundamental characteristic of the problems called global.
But due to the scale, duration and degree of impact, overcoming such problems requires colossal forces and means that individual countries and even groups of countries do not yet have and cannot have - it is necessary to attract a variety of (including material, financial, labor, technological, spiritual, intellectual, information) resources. In other words, any of the global problems has the most serious economic aspects, which make it impossible to solve them without pooling resources, primarily material and financial, of the world community.
Attracting the combined funds of many or all countries, international organizations, international economic cooperation is the second fundamental feature of the problems of mankind, considered as global.
It must be emphasized that the composition of global problems, their role and place at certain stages of the development of society are changing. It is no coincidence that therefore their list in some studies, publications, and even in textbooks does not match. Many global problems that meet the indicated criteria and are caused by natural factors arise and exist for a very long time: natural disasters, meteor showers, magnetic storms, etc. But to a significant extent, the global problems of our time are the result of all previous human activity.
In the name of profit, including by reducing costs, in pursuance of authoritarian political decisions, the natural environment was violated, natural resources were rapaciously used and depleted, huge amounts of money were wasted for unproductive, inhumane purposes. At the same time, the emergence and aggravation of global problems is not only the result of selfish and thoughtless actions, but, to a large extent, the inevitable logical consequence of the development of society as a whole, including the acceleration and expansion of its economic activity.
To a certain extent, the strengthening of the negative impact of global problems on all aspects of life and activity, difficulties in solving them on present stage and in the long term, are associated with increased rates of economic growth based on predominantly intensive factors and, as it is not contradictory, scientific and technological progress. Especially this trend is manifested in the expansion of the set and increase in the scale of unresolved socio-economic problems that are acquiring a global character.
The exceptional difficulty and volume of the tasks and the limited means for solving global problems require a reasonable determination of their composition and priorities for action.
In separate publications recent years called from 3 to 20 global problems of our time. Most authors, and we share this point of view, identify four main global problems: - environmental; - disarmament, non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and prevention of nuclear war; demographic; - natural resources (raw materials, energy, food).
The global problems also include: the use of the resources of the sea and the seabed; space exploration; overcoming the economic backwardness of underdeveloped countries and poverty in the world, ensuring human rights, creating and developing a worldwide computer information system, etc.
The place, role and scope of individual global problems do not remain unchanged. At present, practically unanimously, the ecological problem is recognized as the first one, although until recently, not without political reasons, disarmament and the prevention of nuclear war were considered such. Due to the exceptional scope, the degree of influence and consequences for mankind, the variety of included components, the special economic difficulties of solving this problem, this problem has acquired new quality characteristics.
The growth of the Earth's population, the intensification of the use of natural resources, the extraction of natural resources, pollution and depletion of the environment lead to fundamental changes in the conditions of human life and the state of near-Earth space. Ecology has grown into the first global problem with unprecedented economic aspects. It is also significant that it is characterized by a steady tendency to exacerbate.
Changes are also taking place within global problems: some of their components lose their former importance, the role of others increases, and new ones appear. Thus, in the demographic problem, new tasks have arisen associated with a significant expansion of international migration of the population, labor resources etc.
At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize the close connection of global problems with each other. The outpacing population growth compared to agricultural production in many developing countries predetermines the acuteness of the food problem. Developed countries that have food resources, as well as international organizations that develop and implement special assistance programs, are also forced to join in its solution.
It should be noted that the assessment of individual global problems and the attitude towards them in countries and in the world community are ambiguous, especially from the standpoint of economic aspects, finding sources of resources to overcome them. The author does not set the task detailed consideration each of the global problems is a separate, large topic. Only on the example of some, in our opinion, the main ones, the impact of global problems on the formation of the world economy and the role of the latter in their solution is considered.
For the first time, attention was paid to the emergence and growth of global problems in the early 1970s. in the known materials of the Club of Rome. It is no coincidence that even then the issues of infection and violation of the environment, ecology, and their consequences for humanity were put forward in the first place. At the same time, it was proposed to concentrate efforts on weakening the negative impact of economic activity, population dynamics, primarily by restrictive, regionally differentiated regulation of economic growth.
Now the urgent need for coordinated large-scale actions of the entire world community has become obvious, taking into account the planetary catastrophic nature of the problem for both present and future generations. It is replenished with new components (the danger of nuclear waste and their disposal; increased, massive impact on human life and health; adverse sustainable changes in the earth's climate due to the systematic increasing destruction of the atmospheric environment, etc.), covering almost all countries and territories.
Second half of the 20th century This is a time of never-before-seen pace economic development. However, it has increasingly begun to be carried out without proper consideration of the possibilities of the natural environment, the permissible economic loads on it, and the potential capacity of the biosphere.
Describing the general state of the natural environment, scientists different countries usually use such definitions as “degradation of the global economic system”, “destruction of natural life support systems”, etc. Many write about the growing global environmental crisis, which in some regions has already taken the most distinct forms.
Conventionally, the whole problem of the degradation of the world ecological system can be divided into two components: degradation of the natural environment as a result of irrational nature management and pollution of it with human waste.
There is no need to talk about some quantitative parameters of the ecological situation that are incomparable with previous periods. The 20th century brought to humanity the destruction of more than 1/4 of cultivated land and 2/3 of forests. According to experts, in 2000 the volume of industrial waste will reach 10 billion tons, having increased by 2.5 times over 30 years. Water pollution will increase over the same time by more than 10 times.
According to forecasts, the average annual temperature on Earth will increase by 1.5-4.5 degrees by the middle of the 21st century, and the level of the World Ocean will rise by 1.4-2.2 m by 2010. By the way, this aspect has not yet found a wide discussions among specialists, at least on the pages of specialized literature, in terms of the future of ports.
The data presented confirm the exceptional scale of the environmental problem, its significance for the present and future of world civilization, and the colossal amount of funds needed to overcome and reduce its negative consequences, which is difficult to assess. This includes national and international spending. In practice, annual expenditures on nature protection alone in the last 30 years of the 20th century were: in 1970 - 40 billion dollars, in 1980 - 75, and in 1990 - about 150 billion dollars. For 2000 they were planned at 250 billion dollars, which corresponds to approximately 0.8% of world GDP. Meanwhile, the cost of damage to the environment (and here, after all, harm to health, an increase in morbidity, etc., and even more losses in the future) is 4-6% of GDP only in developed countries.
From the above data, we can conclude that the main negative environmental indicators have increased by at least an order of magnitude in a few years, while environmental spending has increased only 3.5 times, and this gap has been steadily increasing in recent years. The issue of resources has another important aspect that predetermines the need and importance of international cooperation in overcoming the environmental threat. If developed countries, due to the state of their economy, can allocate large funds for environmental purposes, then developing countries and countries with transition economy Russia, in particular, do not currently have such an opportunity, exacerbating their own and the global environmental situation.
Meanwhile, the first in these groups of countries is becoming especially acute: accelerated demographic growth in the "third world" leads to increased consumption natural resources, environmental pollution. Now the volume of harmful emissions into the atmosphere is, according to some estimates, 22 billion tons. in year. Of these, almost half are in North America and more than 1/3 in Western Europe and Japan. If the world average per capita carbon dioxide emission is taken as 100, then in Western countries it was 72, in countries in transition - 186, and in developing countries - 153. In developing countries, CO2 emissions per dollar of GDP are one and a half times higher than in countries transition economy and 4 times than in the industrial countries of the West.
According to UN experts, the “contribution” of developing countries to atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions will increase from the current 28 to 40% by the middle of the 21st century. Such and many other pollutions of the environment (soil, air and water), as a rule, are not limited to national boundaries, but affect nearby and often more distant countries. As a result, there is not a simple economic and legal problem of identifying the causes and sources of transboundary space pollution, determining responsibility for it, the procedure and methods for compensating for the damage caused. In other words, even in such cases, an international level of resolution of relevant issues is required. This is especially true of environmental threats affecting many countries, the entire world community.
It is no coincidence, therefore, that back in 1983, the World Commission on Environment and Development was established within the UN, and in 1992, a representative conference (UNCED) on development and the environment was held in Rio de Janeiro, which outlined the tasks of the world community in this area in the adopted document: Agenda 21. The main theses of this document are as follows:
· all the attention and efforts of the world community should be directed to people who have the full right to health and fruitful activity in harmony with nature;
· an obligatory component of the process of development of mankind, any life activity is the protection of the environment;
· the tasks of maintaining the environment should be determined by the interests of present and future generations;
· The sustainable development of countries and the entire world community cannot be ensured without changing the methods of production and consumption.
Three main components influence the development of the ecological situation:
society (population, its composition and distribution, level and living conditions);
Life activity in the economic and household sphere;
The natural environment, on the one hand, as an object of vital activity, on the other, as important factor the latter and human existence in general.
It is quite obvious that modern environmental problems are not only technological, economic, legal and moral, but also political. This emphasizes the need for international cooperation in the creation and provision of economic, legal, organizational and institutional conditions for solving environmental and other global problems, mechanisms for the implementation of relevant measures and control over their implementation. Moreover, one cannot but take into account that the necessary restrictions in the field of the environment are often in conflict with the national interests of individual countries.
In conditions market economy the main levels of solving environmental problems (enterprise, state, international or supranational structures) are not fully aligned, their interests do not always coincide. Purely market principles turn out to be unacceptable for solving a global environmental problem, as, by the way, other problems of a global nature. Practically at all levels, state and international regulation using direct administrative (prohibitions, restrictions, standards and regulations, mandatory examinations and permits, sanctions) and indirect (payments and fines, special taxes and fees, environmental funds).
This is complemented by economic regulatory measures, including: the sale of rights (quotas) for environmental pollution, subsidies, soft loans and targeted loans for environmental protection activities, tax incentives and incentive tariffs for enterprises and structures that ensure the environmental friendliness of products, areas of their economic activity, encouragement accelerated depreciation environmental technology, etc.
The conference in Rio de Janeiro, the subsequent period of further aggravation of environmental problems, serious natural disasters of recent times predetermined the concentration of efforts of individual countries and the world community on ensuring national and international environmental security.
This should be supported by:
awareness of the special complexity and severity, exceptional scale and global nature of the environmental problem;
· Consistent implementation at all levels of adequate economic, financial, legal, organizational, institutional, personnel, psychological and political measures to address it;
· ensuring the structural restructuring of the economy with a focus on environmental safety;
· Establishment of the actual responsibility of all users of natural resources for violation of environmental legislation and international agreements on relevant issues;
· establishment of systematic monitoring and control over the state of the natural environment; creation and maintenance of a specially protected biosphere fund;
organization of mandatory, including international, independent expertise objects of potential environmental hazard;
· Creation of an effective legal environment for ensuring environmental protection;
formation of an effective system of environmental education and vocational training in this region.
But the implementation of these tasks requires the consolidation of resources both at the national and international levels. It was these issues that were devoted to the international conference under the auspices of the UN, held in December. 1997 in Kyoto with participation from over 120 countries. Here, practical measures and recommendations for attracting funds from individual countries to solve the most pressing environmental problems were discussed, in particular, the level of deductions for these purposes in groups of countries (EU) and in some countries was determined. The "Kyoto Treaty", prepared by the conference participants, provided for measures to reduce the greenhouse effect by, in particular, setting limits on carbon dioxide emissions for individual countries, which would make it possible to reduce such emissions by 2010 by 7% against the current level.
Countries within these limits could sell part of their quotas to other countries that exceed them. This marked the beginning of the international economic mechanism limiting harmful effects on the environment. Not all of these issues were in full agreement. Nevertheless, the world community intends to fight consistently and in a coordinated manner to solve this priority global problem of our time.
The demographic problem is very serious. The growth of the world's population and the scale of production, combined with unsustainable consumption patterns, is placing an ever greater burden on the life-sustaining potential of the biosphere. Average annual growth rate of world population in 1993-2010 are estimated at 1.38%,8 while over the previous twenty years the rate was 1.8%.
In developed industrialized countries the population is practically not increasing, and in a number of European countries the indigenous population is even declining. According to forecasts, the population growth rate in industrialized countries will be in 1995-2020. 0.43% (in the period 1996 - 2000 the growth was about 0.58%). In developing countries, where almost 4.5 billion people live, the number of inhabitants in the period 1995-2020. will grow at a rate of 1.94% per year (in 1995-2000 - 2.16%). According to many forecasts, the world population will grow from 5 billion people. in the mid 90s. up to 7 billion people in 2010. At the same time, the population of developing countries will be about 78% of the total world population.
The growth of the population on Earth was facilitated by economic factors: the proportional growth of the working-age population. This is natural for a period of extensive economic growth. At present, there is a sharp increase in the anthropogenic impact on the biosphere. Achieving the 7 billion milestone will almost double the anthropogenic pressure on the planet, even with the introduction of resource-saving technologies. Although some analyzes indicate that supposedly population growth in developing countries is not the main threat to the stability of the biosphere, because four-fifths of the population, and these are developing countries, consume less than 20% of all resources and pollute the environment four times less than developed countries. A 1% population growth in the United States poses a greater threat to the environment than a 2% growth in developing countries. One billion people in India have the same impact on the biosphere as 50 million Americans.
In order to explain the processes of world population growth, the concept of demographic transition has been developed. According to this concept, in a traditional society, the birth and death rates are high, and the population is growing slowly. The demographic transition begins almost simultaneously with the formation of an industrial society. The transition from traditional to modern type of reproduction (low birth rate - low mortality - low natural increase) has ended in industrialized countries Western Europe and North America in the 1950s. XX century, and in the last quarter of the century it began in a number of developing countries and regions (China, Southeast Asia, Latin America).
In the first phase, the decline in mortality (due to improved nutrition and health care) is faster than the decline in fertility, and as a result of which the natural increase in population increases sharply. In this phase - "population explosion".
In the second phase, the death rate continues to decline, but the birth rate falls even faster, as a result of which population growth gradually slows down.
The third phase is characterized by a slowdown in the decline in the birth rate with a slight increase in mortality, so that the natural increase remains at a low level. The industrialized countries are now close to the completion of this phase.
Finally, in the fourth phase, the death and birth rates become almost the same, and the process of demographic stabilization ends.
The process of demographic transition is expected to last until about 2100, when the population will stabilize at 10.5 billion people.
AT modern world Poverty and underdevelopment are characteristic, first of all, for developing countries, where almost 2/3 of the world's population lives. Therefore, this global problem is often called the problem of overcoming the backwardness of developing countries.
Most of these countries, especially the least developed ones, are characterized by severe underdevelopment, judging by the level of their socio-economic development. As a result, many of these countries are characterized by appalling levels of poverty. Thus, 1/4 of the population of Brazil, 1/3 of the population of Nigeria, 1/2 of the population of India consume goods and services for less than $1 per day (according to purchasing power parity). For comparison, in Russia such in the first half of the 90s. was less than 2%.
As a result, about 800 million people suffer from malnutrition in the world. In addition, a significant part of the poor people are illiterate. Thus, the proportion of illiterates among the population over 15 years old is 17% in Brazil, about 43% in Nigeria and about 48% in India.
The enormous scale of poverty and underdevelopment raises doubts as to whether it is even possible to speak of the normal development and progress of human society, when most of the inhabitants of the planet find themselves below the line of a decent human existence. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that the achievements of world scientific and technological progress "bypass" many developing countries, their colossal labor resources are little used, and these countries themselves, for the most part, do not actively participate in world economic life.
It would be highly unwise not to see the dangers that arise from the continuation of such a situation in many developing countries. Thus, it forms in the broad public consciousness in these countries a negative attitude towards the existing order in the world. This is expressed in various ideas about the responsibility of developed countries for the situation in developing countries, as well as in the requirements for the redistribution of income in the world economy, some kind of “equalization” on a global scale (for example, the movement of developing countries to establish a new international economic order).
The growing social tension due to the aggravation of the problem of underdevelopment is pushing various groups of the population and the ruling circles of developing countries to search for internal and external culprits for such a disastrous situation, which is manifested in an increase in the number and depth of conflicts in developing world, including ethnic, religious, territorial. So, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) in the second half of the 90s. there were more than 150 conflicts of various origins in the world. Considering the trend towards the expansion of the "club" of nuclear powers at the expense of developing countries, it is impossible to predict the full potential catastrophic nature of such a development of events.
Most economists agree that the development in developing countries of effective national strategies development based on domestic economic resources based on integrated approach. With this approach, not only industrialization and post-industrialization, the liberalization of economic life and the transformation of agrarian relations are considered as prerequisites for creating a modern economy and achieving sustainable economic growth, but also education reform, improving the health care system, mitigating inequality, and rationalizing population policy, stimulating the solution of employment problems.
However, many developing countries (especially the least developed ones) cannot completely change their situation without international assistance to solve the problem of underdevelopment.
It is carried out primarily through the so-called official development assistance from developed countries in the form of financial resources. For the poorest countries (namely, they are the main recipients of this assistance), official development assistance is more than 3% in relation to their GDP, including for the countries of Tropical Africa - even more than 5%, although for each inhabitant of this region this is only $26 per year (1996).
Even greater opportunities for overcoming backwardness are provided by attracting foreign private investment - direct and portfolio, as well as bank loans. The inflow of these financial resources to developing countries is growing especially rapidly and is currently the basis of external financing of the third world countries. According to the IMF, in the 90s. the net inflow of all financial resources (that is, minus payments on them) to developing countries ranged from 114 to 229 billion dollars annually. However, the effectiveness of all these financial flows is often negated by corruption and simple theft, which are quite widespread in developing countries, as well as inefficient use of the funds received.
The world food problem is called one of the main unresolved problems of the 20th century. Significant progress has been made in food production over the past 50 years, with the number of undernourished and hungry almost halved. At the same time, a large part of the world's population is still experiencing food shortages. The number of those who need them exceeds 800 million people, i.e. an absolute lack of food (in terms of calories) is experienced by one in seven.
The problem of food shortages is most acute in many developing countries (according to UN statistics, a number of post-socialist states also belong to them). In particular, among the most needy countries, where the average per capita food consumption in terms of energy value is less than 2000 kcal per day and continues to decline, Togo and Mongolia.
At the same time, in a number of developing countries, the per capita consumption level currently exceeds 3,000 kcal per day, i.e. is at an acceptable level. This category includes, inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, Morocco, Mexico, Syria and Turkey.
Another major aspect of the food problem is nutritional imbalance. Yes, for modern Russia characteristic is not so much a decrease in the energy value of food consumed (during the 90s - from 2500 to 2300 kcal per day), but a deterioration in the structure of nutrition. In other words, the per capita consumption of the most important types of food is well below the medical norms recommended for good nutrition, and continues to decline. In 1997, the consumption of meat and meat products per person was 50 kg (at a rate of 81 kg), milk and dairy products - 229 kg (norm 392 kg), vegetable oil - 7.9 kg (norm - 13 kg), sugar - 33 kg (norm 40.7 kg). The food problem in Russia became most acute in the 1990s. due to a sharp decline in the living standards of the main part of the population and a drop in agricultural production by more than 1.5 times.
World production agricultural production is constrained by limited land, both in developed and developing countries. This is due to the high level of urbanization, the need to preserve forest areas, and limited water resources. The most acute problem of food shortage is facing the poorest countries who are unable to allocate significant funds for food imports.
Despite the fact that the bulk of food is consumed where it is produced, international food trade is very intensive. The volume of world food exports is more than 300 billion dollars a year.
The main participants in the international food trade are developed countries, primarily the USA, France, the Netherlands, and Germany. This group of countries accounts for about 60% of world exports and imports. Approximately one third of food purchases and sales are in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The share of countries with economies in transition is insignificant and amounts to less than 5%.
Russia is a major net importer of food and raw materials for its production, annually purchasing these goods in the amount of more than 10 billion dollars (primarily meat and meat products, sugar, grain, as well as milk and dairy products).
The most active international trade is in grain products, as well as (to a lesser extent) meat and dairy products and sugar. The main grain suppliers are the USA, Canada, the EU (mainly France), Argentina and Australia. They account for 9/10 of world wheat and feed grain exports
The leading food exporting countries are at the same time its major buyers. Thus, the United States, having secured a key position in the supply of strategic food raw materials, imports large quantities of fruits and vegetables, coffee, cocoa, tea, spices and a number of other goods. In 1996, United States food exports were $47 billion and imports were $22 billion.
The system of international trade in agricultural products, including food, is currently undergoing fundamental changes. The need for reforms in this area was caused by the growth state support and protectionism in many countries, especially developed ones.
The ongoing policy of supporting high domestic prices led to the overproduction of a number of agricultural products and the widespread use of export subsidies and import restrictions, which in turn complicated interstate relations in the foreign economic sphere. The lack of internationally agreed rules and procedures has repeatedly been the reason for the emergence of contradictions, fraught with a burst of stability in international trade and the emergence of trade wars.
The main "battles" unfolded between the EU and the US, which, due to marketing problems, practiced the large-scale use of subsidies in the supply of their grain to foreign markets. These actions provoked active opposition from Canada, Australia and other smaller exporters, whose financial situation does not allow the use of large subsidies. In general, in developed countries, the level of support for agriculture in the period 1986-1991. ranged from 42 to 47%. The total cash equivalent of subsidies to producers, calculated according to the OECD methodology, was approaching $180 billion (it has now decreased by $30 billion).
Russia, as a future member of the WTO, will obviously face the problems noted above. At the same time, the Russian Federation has quite broad opportunities for restructuring the structure of production and foreign trade in agricultural products.
The most difficult problem for Russia is the future change in the forms of state support for agriculture, especially given its current crisis state. To date, direct payments to agricultural producers, as well as subsidies to consumers (mainly for dairy and bakery products) have practically disappeared. At the same time, it is obvious that Russia, following the example of the United States and Western Europe, needs to shift the focus in supporting the agro-industrial complex to the development of infrastructure in rural areas, environmental protection, quality control and sanitary control, the intensification of scientific research in the agricultural sector and measures in the field of state regulation food market in the country.
Accession to the WTO also imposes obligations on Russia in relation to the transition from non-tariff measures to regulate food imports to tariff and subsequent reduction customs duties. Meanwhile, the levels of Russian duties did not always provide sufficiently effective protection for domestic producers. As a result, despite the general decline in food consumption in the country, the share of imports continued to remain high, and sales of Russian food products were declining.
The financial crisis that began on August 17, 1998 marked new trends in Russia's foreign food trade. The sharp change in the exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar led to a decrease in the purchasing power of the population and a reduction in demand for imported food.
At the same time, in connection with the crisis, the issue of opening the markets of the WTO member countries for Russian agricultural products gives new meaning. Climatic conditions On the territory of Russia, they make it possible to establish in the future the production of goods that can find demand on the world market (this market, although quite saturated, still has enough niches). Such goods include, in particular, high-quality wheat, rye, food oats, sunflower. The restructuring of the structure of agricultural production in Russia, based on the needs of the world market, implies the active development of industries with a clearly expressed export orientation.
In addition to the WTO, another important organization that determines the prospects for the world food situation is the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). At present, this organization, in whose activities Russia participates as a permanent observer, and the world community as a whole are paying serious attention to the prospects for solving the food problem in countries in need, including countries with economies in transition. If earlier (in the 1970s and 1980s) the most important role was given to food aid, by now the emphasis has shifted to assisting the development of national agriculture. The main form of assistance to the agricultural sector from both FAO and largest countries- donors (USA and EU member states) is the funding of specific projects focused on the rise of agriculture. For these purposes, in particular, a part of the FAO budget of $1 billion is spent. Technical assistance is also provided, including the training of personnel for agriculture, the provision of expert advice, the implementation of expert assessments, etc.
Examples of real FAO support for the development of national agriculture are the dissemination of new high-yielding crop varieties in needy countries, the transfer of advances in biotechnology to them, the development and assistance in implementing projects to expand food production, and the construction of infrastructure in rural areas.
Many international experts agree that food production in the world in the next 20 years will be able to meet the general demand of the population for food, even if the world's population grows by 80 million people annually. At the same time, the demand for food in developed countries, where it is already quite high, will remain approximately at the current level (the changes will mainly affect the structure of consumption and the quality of products). At the same time, the efforts of the world community to solve the food problem will lead, as expected, to a real increase in food consumption in countries where there is a shortage, i.e. in a number of countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, as well as of Eastern Europe.
A special set of such specific features as a global character that threatens the development of mankind, the urgency and urgency of a solution, the interconnectedness and the need for action by the entire world community, made it possible to single out the following problems as global ones: overcoming poverty and backwardness, peace and demilitarization, food, environmental , demographic.
World economic and political development in the 70s - 90s. brought the understanding that the set of global problems is not something that is not subject to change. Over time, the content and understanding of old global problems changes, the emergence of new ones that develop into global ones is recognized.
It is now recognized that in addition to purely economic, global problems have a colossal political impact on the life of modern civilization and, being closely intertwined, require the unification of the efforts of all mankind in their solution.
The development of the modern world economy, the transition to the post-industrial stage of development makes adjustments to the priority of global problems. From this they do not become less important, but humanity is limited in its financial capabilities, which it can allocate to solve global problems. This constraint can be easily overcome not by searching for political solutions to the problem and by demonstrating the political will of individual states to establish effective international cooperation in solving global problems.
The world food problem continues to be quite acute, despite serious progress in the field of food production. The number of those in need exceeds 800 million people.
Many countries keep high level state support for the production and export of food, as well as import restrictions. The reform of international trade in agricultural products is expected to lead to a weakening of protectionism in this area, but the population of importing countries, including Russia, may face higher prices for basic food products. At that time, the Russian Federation has ample opportunities for optimal inclusion in new system world trade in agricultural products.
The international community is paying more attention to the expansion of the food problem in countries in need, including countries with economies in transition. The main importance is attached to the implementation of specific projects aimed at increasing agricultural production. Such assistance is provided both on a bilateral and multilateral basis (primarily through FAO channels). As a result of these efforts, the global population as a whole is expected to be able to meet the demand for food in the next 20 years, even if its population grows by 80 million people annually.
In modern conditions, the world is on the verge of an ecological planetary catastrophe.
There are several major environmental pollutants that are directly related to the development of human civilization.
All sober-minded humanity (both industrialists and consumers) came to the conclusion that it is necessary to stop thoughtless, unrestrained economic growth and take into account the possibilities of the environment for further living on Earth.
The main idea of modernity is to enable both the present and future generations of people to live comfortably and sanely on Earth.
The demographic problem in the modern world has two aspects. First, it is a demographic explosion in a number of developing countries and regions, which, by “devaluing” accumulation, prevents economic growth and perpetuating the economic, social and cultural backwardness of these countries. Secondly, the narrowed reproduction of the population in developed countries and depopulation in a number of post-socialist countries lead to the demographic aging of their populations and in the future may block the economic development of these countries.
According to the concept of demographic transition, an increase in the level of economic development ultimately leads to a slowdown in population growth. This trend has fully manifested itself in developed and post-socialist countries and has a noticeable impact on demographic processes in a number of developing countries. It is expected that in the second half of the 21st century the population of the Earth will stabilize at the level of about 10.5 billion people, so overpopulation of the world economy (but not individual countries) as a whole does not threaten.
As for the demographic aging of the population in developed and post-socialist countries, this process can be slowed down in modern conditions, but not stopped. The solution to this problem is associated with a significant increase in the efficiency of the economy.
1. World economy: Textbook / Ed. prof. A.S. Bulatov. - M .: Jurist, 2002 - 734 p.
2. World economy: Textbook for universities. / Ed. Lomakina V.K. - M.: UNITI, 2000 - 727 p.
3. Spiridonov I.A. World economy. Tutorial. M.: Finance and statistics, 2003. - 652s.
4. Protasov O.G. Global problems of mankind // Ecology and Economics, No. 11, 2003, pp. 9-11.
5. Krasheninnikov P.V. Is the 21st century a century of hope? // Ecological Bulletin, No. 1, 2004, pp. 3-4.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION GOU VPO ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTE
TEST
in "Philosophy"
topic 4: “Environmental and demographic problems and ways to solve them
completed by: Gorlatykh D.Yu.
Faculty: financial and credit
Specialty: bachelor - economics
teacher: Boyko V.N.
Kursk - 2012
Introduction
.Global environmental problems and ways to solve them
.Population and its role in the development of society
.The main environmental and demographic problems of modern Russia and ways to solve them
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
There are a huge number of problems in the modern world, such as overcoming the backwardness of developing countries, preventing nuclear war, eliminating dangerous diseases, food and energy problems, environmental pollution and a number of other problems, but, in my opinion. A special place among them is occupied by the demographic problem. It determines the development of almost all global problems of mankind.
Due to the avalanche-like growth of the population on the planet, humanity has more and more problems. The earth is several billion years old. If this period of time is compressed to one day. It turns out that humanity exists for no more than a second. Nevertheless, according to UN estimates, by 2015, about 8 billion people will live on the planet. All of them will need water, food, air, energy and a place under the sun. But the planet can no longer provide this to every person.
In order to provide people with everything they need, factories are built, minerals are mined, forests are cut down. This causes great damage to nature, and it is difficult or impossible for a person to correct his mistakes. This could lead to a global environmental catastrophe. For example, over the past 50 years, more than half of the rainforests on Earth have been destroyed. As a result, hundreds of species of animals and plants disappeared forever. Every second, a piece of rain forest the size of a football field is cut down for pastures and arable land, for timber, for the extraction of oil and ore. And rainforests are called the "lungs of the planet."
According to scientists, humanity currently lives at the expense of future generations, who are destined for much worse living conditions, which will inevitably affect their health and social well-being. To avoid this, people need to learn to exist only on the "interest" from the fixed capital - nature, without spending the capital itself.
Since the 20th century, this capital has been squandered at a steadily increasing pace, and by now the nature of the Earth has changed so much that global environmental problems have been discussed at the international level for several decades. In the ecosystem used, even the latest technologies for rational nature management do not allow preserving biodiversity. For this purpose, specially protected natural territories (SPNA) are needed, in which economic activity is completely prohibited or limited. The area of protected areas in Russia is 20 or more times smaller than in developed countries. And in order to preserve the flora and fauna of our country in its current state, it is necessary to increase the territory occupied by protected areas, at least 10-15 times.
1. Global environmental problems and ways to solve them
The initial reasons that appeared at the end of the 20th century. global environmental problems were the population explosion and the simultaneous scientific and technological revolution.
At the same time, the scientific and technological revolution gave mankind the possession of atomic energy, which, in addition to being good, led to radioactive contamination of vast territories. High-speed jet aircraft appeared, destroying the ozone layer of the atmosphere. The number of vehicles polluting the atmosphere of cities with exhaust gases has increased tenfold. In agriculture, in addition to fertilizers, various poisons began to be widely used - pesticides, the washout of which polluted the surface layer of water throughout the oceans.
All this has led to many major environmental problems. Global environmental problems are an objective result of the interaction between our civilization and the environment in the era of industrial development. The beginning of this era is considered to be 1860. Around this time, as a result of the rapid development of Euro-American capitalism, the then industry reached a new level. Global environmental problems are divided into several groups that are closely related to each other:
· demographic problem (negative consequences of population growth in the 20th century);
· energy problem (energy shortage gives rise to the search for new sources of energy and pollution associated with their extraction and use);
· food problem (the need to achieve a full-fledged level of nutrition for every person raises questions in the field of agriculture and the use of fertilizers);
· the problem of preserving natural resources (raw and mineral resources have been depleted since the Bronze Age, the conservation of the human gene pool and biodiversity is important, fresh water and atmospheric oxygen are limited);
· the problem of protecting the environment and humans from the action of harmful substances (there are sad facts of mass casting of whales on the coast, mercury, oil, etc. disasters and poisoning caused by them).
In the last quarter of the XX century. a sharp warming of the global climate began, which in the boreal regions is reflected in a decrease in the number of frosty winters. The average temperature of the surface layer of air over the past 25 years has increased by 0.7°C. The temperature of the subglacial water in the region of the North Pole increased by almost two degrees, as a result of which the ice began to melt from below.
Now most climatologists of the world recognize the role of the anthropogenic factor in climate warming. Over the past 10-15 years, there have been many studies and meetings that have shown that the rise in the level of the World Ocean is really happening, at a rate of 0.6 mm per year, or 6 cm per century. At the same time, vertical uplifts or subsidences of coastlines reach 20 mm per year.
At present, the main environmental problems that have arisen under the influence of anthropogenic activities are: violation of the ozone layer, deforestation and desertification of territories, pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, acid rain, and a decrease in biodiversity. In this regard, the most extensive research and in-depth analysis of changes in the field of global ecology are needed, which could help in making cardinal decisions at the highest level in order to reduce damage. natural conditions and providing a favorable living environment.
2. Population and its role in the development of society
Population - a set of people living on Earth (humanity) or within a specific territory, continent, country, region, city. Unlike the universal term "population", the term "population" is used for the most part in the socio-economic characteristics of the population. The study of N. is engaged in a special science - Demography<#"justify">Pre-Marxist sociologists and economists paid great attention to the question of the role of population in the development of society. During the period of the emergence and development of capitalism, English economists and sociologists tried to find in population growth the main cause of social development. They argued that population growth, population density is the root cause, the decisive condition for the development of society: the faster the population grows, the faster society itself develops. These views at that time played a progressive role, they were used by the bourgeoisie in its struggle against the nobility, against the "unproductive estates." These anti-scientific and reactionary views were especially persistently preached by the English economist T. Malthus (1766-1834). At the end of the 18th century, he put forward a theory according to which the world's population is growing very rapidly - according to the laws of geometric progression, while the production of food and other necessary material goods is developing more slowly - according to the laws of arithmetic progression.
Supporters of Malthus - the Malthusians - believed that wars, mass epidemics and other disasters leading to a reduction in population are a necessary means of regulating population growth. This discrepancy between population growth and the amount of means of subsistence, which is allegedly the cause of poverty, hunger, unemployment and other misfortunes of the working people under capitalism, should, according to Malthus, be regulated by wars, epidemics, marriage restrictions and other methods of population reduction.
According to Malthus, "the rich are not able to provide the poor with work and food, therefore the poor, by the very nature of things, have no right to demand work and food from them." A person born into a poor family, according to Malthus, is an extra person. “There is no place for him at the great feast of life. Nature commands him to retire and will not delay in carrying out her own sentence.
After the Second World War, in connection with the accelerated growth of the population, especially in developing countries, activation of Malthusianism is observed. The main idea of most works devoted to the problem of population is the assertion that the modern era is an era of "population explosion" and that humanity is now threatened not only by thermonuclear war, but also by overpopulation. Views of this kind, which consider demographic phenomena regardless of the social class structure of society, serve the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie. Focusing on demographic issues, they divert the attention of the masses, the progressive forces of society from the pressing problems of our time - from the struggle against imperialism and neo-colonialism, for the prevention of thermonuclear war.
In an effort to prove that the decisive factor in social development is biological, and not social laws, bourgeois scholars, as a rule, refer to the special role played by population growth. From population growth, they argue, the state of society depends, and this growth, in turn, is determined by the biological laws of reproduction. Thus, the life activity and development of society are subject to biological laws. Is this true? This question requires a concrete historical analysis.
Slow population growth and a shortage of labor may also have a negative effect on the development of productive forces. Therefore, in modern conditions there is an objective need for scientific management of this process. So far, population growth has occurred unconsciously. Although in the final analysis it was subject not to biological laws, but to the laws of social production and social development in general, these laws themselves made their way spontaneously. Now conditions and an objective need are emerging for the conscious regulation of population growth. At the same time, this is not about forced Malthusian birth control, but about a whole series of well-thought-out measures, due to which population growth should accelerate in some regions and countries, and slow down somewhat in others. Such regulation should be based primarily on the high level of culture and consciousness of the overwhelming majority of mankind. And this is possible only under socialism, with the planned use of all labor resources in the interests of the whole society.
The main environmental and demographic problems of modern Russia and ways to solve them
The demographic problem is a global problem of mankind associated with the continued significant increase in the population of the Earth, outpacing the growth of economic well-being, as a result of which food and other problems that threaten the lives of the population in these countries are exacerbated.
Under the demographic problem can be understood as a population decline, and overpopulation.
In the first case, this is the situation that develops in a country or region when the birth rate<#"justify">Overcoming the demographic catastrophe and ensuring the demographic security of Russia is impossible without a correct definition of the demographic problem, that is, the real causes of supermortality and superlow birth rates and the foundations for the country's demographic prospects.
At present, there are two "parties" in opposition to each other on the demographic issue in Russia. Unfortunately, none of them is able to reach the formulation of the demographic problem.
Some see the causes of the demographic catastrophe in the fact that the government deliberately corrupts the population and directly contributes to supermortality and family disintegration through its socio-economic policy. Hence, they accuse the authorities of ethnocide. And in such a position there is a deep meaning. This “party” is right that the inaction of the authorities, who are not able to at least declare as their priority the overcoming of the demographic catastrophe, is criminal and directly leads to the extinction of the population of our country. However, this "party" loses sight of the fundamental fact that the beginning of the demographic catastrophe lies in 1964, when the main indicators of the quality of the population began to deteriorate and that even with the most benevolent and caring government towards the population, to stop the demographic catastrophe without accepting paradoxical non-standard and fundamentally no new solutions.
The opposite "party", on the contrary, does not see a catastrophe even in the monstrously high supermortality rate and, on the whole, considers the processes of the country's depopulation to be normal, i.e. corresponding to the trends of "developed" countries (or countries of the "North"). The truth of this position is that the fundamental changes in the sphere of demography in our country largely reflect the global civilizational crisis of the basic ways and foundations of life, models of life arrangement. But at the same time, this “party” does not take into account the key circumstance that the global demographic processes themselves are not and cannot be absolute.
Moreover, many philosophers, sociologists, and politicians view these processes with good reason as unnatural, abnormal, and destructive for humanity, or at least not obvious in their consequences. At the same time, it is argued that the rationing of the organization of life in Russia by faceless global processes is destructive for the Russian thousand-year history and, ultimately, leads the country to extinction and death.
The real problem lies between these two extremist positions and lies in the fact that the depopulation of our country reflects the ideological and civilizational "default" of habitual or spontaneously emerging models of organizing the life of the population both in Russia and in those regions of the world where there is a demographic crisis or individual its elements.
Another important aspect of the evaluation demographic situation- this is an influx of people from outside, migration. An increase in this flow can lead to the fact that even population growth is visually possible. But it is no longer necessary to talk about the preservation of the national composition of such a population.
Not so long ago, D. Medvedev and the head of the Ministry of Health and Social Development T. Golikova made statements from which it followed that the country had reached the birth rate of the Soviet period. Why 1991 is taken as a criterion is not entirely clear, because the decline in the birth rate began several years earlier. No one, of course, claims that the problem is solved and you can safely move on to other matters, no. The dream of a demographer will always remain a family with three children, in which there is a normal reproduction of the population. At the moment, we have an average of about 1.3 children in the country. Of course, it will never be possible to make sure that every family has three children or more, some more, some less. The average indicator required for the reproduction of the population can be considered 2.2 children per woman.
Now the reserve of the state can be recognized as the generation of citizens born in 85-89 years of the last century, when the USSR reached indicators of 2.4-2.5 children per woman. Under this generation, all the numerous programs are created, funds are allocated. It cannot be said that young people aged 20-23 are now very eager to start a family, children.
Most of them now have clear goals imposed by a pro-Western model of behavior, the basis of which is to receive a decent education and promising work. The younger generation is ready to work at full capacity, to provide for themselves, but it is quite difficult for them to reach the psychological level of the desire to create a family, children, due to the above problems. But, one way or another, the entry of this generation into the "demographic race" is inevitable due to its size. But then it will be the turn of the generation of 93-95, when the birth rate was extremely low.
In 2010-2015, the country will face not only a possible demographic failure, which can still be avoided, but also the problem of the number of working-age citizens, which cannot be avoided due to the mistakes of the past.
The extinction of the country has an unconditional spiritual and semantic nature. This means that a civilizational crisis is behind the demographic problem in Russia, and it is from there that we must begin to solve the problem.
The demographic catastrophe is not fatal. It is based on the breakdown of the identification of the population Russian Federation and the loss of his original optimistic worldview, on which basic values are built. These destructions are of a historical nature and can only be overcome by creating a new worldview based on millennial traditions - a neotraditional worldview.
The new worldview, on the one hand, cannot be built on consumerism. In a society where consumption is the main value, there is no need for children and the very value of a family and several children, since children reduce consumption and act as a counter value.
This worldview expresses Russian traditionalism, the basis of Russian culture and history, which is associated with the cultivation of a universal universal scale of human dignity in the form of such recognized and multinational phenomena as Russian literature, Russian poetry, Russian song, Russian music, Russian pedagogy, Russian architecture and Russian military leadership. art.
The realization of the principle of personality is possible through the creation of a special kind of civilization - the civilization of personality, where all material and social conditions lives will be oriented towards the enhancement and protection of the dignity of the individual.
In the civilization of personality, the life of each person as a carrier of personality becomes a universal and absolute value. The same applies to the life of every Russian people.
The civilization of the individual has all the necessary conditions in order to act as the basis for demographic development and even a demographic "explosion" in Russia. This is due to a change in the mass perception of childhood and attitudes towards a person.
Children are needed by a country that has a clear image of the future and a promising place for every person in this future. Hence, the main tool for solving the demographic problem is the organization of decisive ultra-long-term development of the country. From this point of view, the leadership of the Russian Federation has only two possible scenarios for action.
The first scenario is to secure for Russia the position of a raw material appendage of economically more developed countries. According to this scenario, the demographic catastrophe does not consist in the extinction of the Russian population, but in the fact that it is going slowly, at a low pace. In Russia, which is oriented towards the export of raw materials, even today's declining population is surplus and, in accordance with the requirements of a resource-based economy, should be reduced by at least 2 times more.
The second scenario is to restore the country as a world power, which is capable of being a leader in solving a number of universally significant world problems. According to the second scenario, it is necessary to super-intensively create a new national industrial system, which should provide the Russian population with a world-class quality of life.
To realize the second scenario in the Russian Federation, positive demographic growth in the form of a significant increase in the population - at least 8-10 percent every decade - and an improvement in the quality of Russian population, i.e. general level of universal abilities, readiness to master the most modern knowledge in the full required volume, world-class qualifications in key professional areas (engineering, pedagogy, medicine, military affairs, urban planning, regional development, science, management, etc.).
Ultimately, the country's development is based on the integration of science, education and industry (the development triad) in several key areas of development that require priority investments from the state and the creation of conditions for private investment. Decisive development requires the organization of strategic planning, which will be based on demographic calculations - primarily on the use of approximately 70 million qualified and healthy people in Russia in the coming years - and the implementation of an appropriate budget policy.
Decisive development can be carried out, first of all, by one's own, and not by recently arrived on the permanent place residence by the population. The subject of development is always the people.
The future of Russia should be built by the entire population and through the inclusion in the development of the entire population, including the future, since development is a long-term process that requires planning for at least one or two decades.
Conclusion
It is estimated that with the current state of agricultural technology and agronomic science, enough food can be produced on existing farmland to feed 10 billion people. If we take into account that the population of the earth is 2 times less than this figure and that hundreds of millions of people in various, and primarily developing, countries are starving or living on the verge of starvation, then this is the result of the fact that in capitalist society highly developed productive forces are not fully utilized. And the reason is in the dominance of private property and the social system corresponding to it. Moreover, the so-called surplus population is not the result of too much rapid growth population, but a consequence of a certain form of organization of society. It is known, for example, that in the leading capitalist countries—the USA, the FRG, England, Japan, France, etc.—there is always a huge army of unemployed. The classics of Marxism-Leninism showed that unemployment is determined not by the biological laws of human reproduction, but by the peculiarities of the capitalist economic system.
Under the conditions of developing socialism, questions connected with population growth must be solved on a scientific basis, taking into account, above all, the objective needs of society. The improvement of the technological base of production, the introduction of new science-intensive technologies and the resulting change in the social structure bring to the fore a number of new problems. These include, first of all, providing a labor force for rapidly developing and sparsely populated areas of the country, creating a system of professional retraining of personnel released in the course of a radical economic reform, creating a system of employment for the able-bodied population, etc. Stimulating population growth, as well as its regulation, in the conditions of our society should be carried out on the basis of the highest democratic principles of social justice and humanism.
Consequently, the answer to the question of how the modern population explosion affects the relationship between nature and society and how its dangerous consequences can be avoided should be sought not in the laws of biology, but in the objective laws of the development and functioning of society.
global environmental demographic
Bibliography
1.Ivin A.A. Fundamentals of social philosophy. - M., 2006.
2.Society and the natural environment / Ed. Ed. V.P. Gavrilov. - M.: Nauka, 2006.
.Pekhov A.P. Biology with the basics of ecology. - M.: Nauka, 2006.
.Philosophy: a textbook for universities / ed. Prof. V.N. Lavrinenko, prof. V.P. Ratnikov. - 3-4 ed., Pereb. And extra. - M., 2004, 2008.
.http://diamat.narod.ru/content.html
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Environmental problems are currently of paramount importance for humanity. The activity of mankind in the development of nature has been irreversibly destructive in the last century.
This activity leads to a continuous increase in carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere, which can cause global climate change as a result of the "greenhouse effect". Growth material production entails such irreversible processes as pollution of the seas and oceans, the atmosphere, the depletion of the ozone layer of the planet, the disappearance of forests, the desertification of the Earth (40% of its land mass), the reduction of fresh water reserves, soil erosion, etc.
The artificial environment created by man is gradually and relentlessly advancing on the natural environment, threatening to swallow it completely in the near future. We must not forget that man is one of the biological species and, as a biological species, he can exist only in certain favorable conditions for his life (which he actively destroys).
Economic progress has been and is being achieved through ecological regression. The main reason for the contradiction between the economy and ecology is the installation of a person on a consumer attitude towards nature. An ecological catastrophe can be prevented only through the awareness of society of its responsibility for the state of its habitat and the development of clear legal norms that limit the anthropogenic impact on nature, which are mandatory for all countries.
War and Peace. Since the middle of the 20th century, the problems of war and peace have ceased to be local. The question is cardinal: "To be or not to be for humanity in general." This is due to the appearance and spread of, first of all, nuclear weapons, which are capable of 1. destroying all life on Earth. The number of nuclear warheads is currently three thousand times more powerful than the number of explosives used in World War II (3.6 tons for each inhabitant of the Earth). The use of nuclear weapons can lead not only and not simply to the destruction of part of the population. There are other consequences: 1) creating the effect of "nuclear winter" - the explosion of "only" one percent of the nuclear charges accumulated on the planet will lead to the destruction of all life, because. clouds of ash from fires and firestorms (caused by explosions) will make the planet's atmosphere practically impenetrable to sunlight, a sharp drop in temperature will occur (by 50-60 degrees) and all living things will die; 2) the appearance of an electromagnetic pulse that affects power plants and disables devices; 3) radioactive contamination of the area for many hundreds and thousands of years (even if someone remains, the question arises: how to live?).
The threat of a global nuclear war comes primarily from US militaristic circles. It is the military-industrial complex that determines the policy of the ruling elite in this country, which prefers international relations power solutions. The situation in the world becomes more and more explosive after the collapse of the USSR and the transition from a bipolar world to a unipolar one, when one country (the United States) takes on the role of a world gendarme and tries to impose its understanding of the world order and its values on other countries (as in the situation with Iraq).
A serious problem, fraught with the outbreak of a third world war, are regional conflicts and crises that give rise to civil wars, world terrorism, national and religious extremism already on a global scale. Many modern political scientists and sociologists, primarily S. Huntington, name the following as the causes of these conflicts:
the struggle between the "poor South" and the "rich North";
clash of civilizations with their different religious foundations (Christianity and Islam).
An effective solution to problems on a national, regional and planetary scale is possible in a non-violent way, on the basis of dialogue and mutual understanding.
The path to peace on Earth is complete and general disarmament. Otherwise, it will escalate tension and war.
demographic problem. The demographic factor (birth rate, death rate, population density and migration) has
significant pressure on the socio-natural environment on a global scale. Population growth rates increase with the development of civilization: if before the 19th century it took 1000 years to double the population, after 1850 - 80 years, at present the population doubles every 50 years. The earth is able to feed 60 billion people, this "critical" threshold will be reached by 21502200. Already, 2.5 billion of the world's 6.5 billion people are starving.
Demographic processes, starting from the 60s of the XX century, are largely determined by two opposite trends: 1) "population explosion" - a sharp increase in population in Asia, Africa, Latin America: in China, the population will increase from - 1 billion 250 million by 2040 - 300 million more, India - from 1 billion to 1 billion. 600 million - by 2050, Pakistan from 147 million to 375 million - by 2050, Vietnam - from 78 - to 130 million people - by 2040, etc. ; 2) "zero growth" of the population in the countries of Western Europe. The first trend leads to a sharp aggravation of socio-economic problems in developing countries, primarily - lack of work, hunger, illiteracy and disorder of tens of millions of people. The second trend is leading to a sharp aging of the population in developed countries and its reduction in general. According to Western political scientists, the population in developed countries (the rich North) in 100 years will be only 10% of the total population of the planet. Which can lead to a military confrontation between the small rich North and the overpopulated poor South and the beginning of a third world war. They are trying to solve the demographic problem in developing countries by implementing public policy control (reduction) over the birth rate, in the developed - on the contrary, the encouragement of the birth rate. However, the results in this direction are disappointing.
Keywords and concepts: global problems of mankind, demography, ecology, nuclear winter, population explosion, Club of Rome.
Control questions and tasks:
Why in the twentieth century did such a topic arise in philosophy as “global problems of mankind”?
What is the danger of modern wars on the planet?
What are the prospects for population on Earth in the near future?
The impact of society on the environment is directly proportional to the number of mankind, its standard of living, and weakens with an increase in the level of environmental consciousness of the population. All three factors are equal. Discussions about how many people may or may not survive on Earth are meaningless if you do not take into account the lifestyle and level of human consciousness. Population problems are studied by demography - the science of the patterns of population reproduction in the socio-historical conditionality of this process. Demography is the science of population that studies population change, fertility and mortality, migration, sex and age structure, national composition, geographical distribution and their dependence on historical, socio-economic and other factors.
When considering the natural-scientific aspects of the problem of population, it is especially important to imagine the breadth of demographic problems. Demography deals with the study of the features of the interaction of biological and social in the reproduction of the population, the cultural and ethical determination of demographic processes, the dependence of demographic characteristics on the level of economic development. A special place is occupied by the identification of the impact on the demographic processes of health development, urbanization and migration.
These general biological laws can be applied when considering the history of mankind only for the period up to the 19th century. From the most ancient historical epochs until the beginning of the last century, the world population fluctuated around several hundred million people, either slowly increasing or decreasing. By the beginning of the Neolithic (New Stone Age), the population of the Earth reached 10 million people, by the end of the Neolithic (3,000 BC) - 50 million, and by the beginning of our era - 230 million people. In 1600, there were about 480 million in the world, of which 96 million were in Europe, that is, 1/5 of the entire population of the Earth. In the middle of the XIX century. - 1 billion, in 1930 - 3 billion people.
Today, about 7 billion people live on the globe, and by 2060 there will be 10 billion people. Such population growth will naturally lead to an even stronger impact of humanity on the environment and, apparently, will further exacerbate the problems that exist today. However, according to resource model world system, the population of the Earth should not exceed 7-7.5 billion people.
The population explosion was caused by a decrease in the mortality of children who have not reached puberty. This was a consequence of the development of the effectiveness of prevention and treatment measures after the discovery of the microbiological nature of infectious diseases. What matters is whether a person died before having children (reproductive death) or after (post-reproductive death). Post-reproductive mortality cannot be a factor limiting population growth, although it certainly has social and economic consequences. Similarly, accidents and natural disasters, contrary to what is sometimes suggested, do not control population. These factors do not have a directed impact on over-reproductive mortality and, despite the socio-economic significance of the losses associated with them, have a relatively weak effect on the growth of the population as a whole. For example, in the US, annual losses from car accidents (approximately 50,000) are reimbursed within 10 days. Even wars since the Second World War have a short impact on the population. Approximately 45,000 Americans died in the Vietnam War. The natural population growth in the United States - 150 thousand people a month - compensates for these losses in three weeks, if you count only men. Even the regular death of 3 million people a year worldwide from starvation and malnutrition is demographically insignificant when compared with the global population growth of approximately 90 million during this period.
Around 1930, 100 years after reaching the billion level, the population exceeded 2 billion, 30 years later (1960) reached 3 billion, and just 15 years later (1975) - 4 billion, then after another For 12 years (1987), the population of the Earth has exceeded 5 billion, and this growth continues, amounting to approximately 90 million - births minus deaths - people per year.
A feature of the formulation of environmental and demographic problems in modern science is its awareness in terms of uniqueness and individuality, the irreproducibility of both national, historical cultures, and the biosphere, many resources. Even in the past, there was no such global awareness, although the account of losses was opened much earlier. Some ecosystems have disappeared forever, and future generations will not see many earthly landscapes and landscapes. There is a catastrophic narrowing of diversity, a colossal standardization of production as a moment of indirect relationship between man and the environment, a flourishing mass culture in which man is lost. In a society where the right of the individual to individuality has not been recognized, it is hardly worth counting on a broad movement to preserve the unique image of nature. In general, uniqueness as a problem is realized only in the face of death. And the acuteness of the demographic and environmental problem forces us to take a fresh look at the nature-society relationship.
The problem of urbanization
One of the most acute problems of our time is the process of urbanization. There are good enough reasons for this.
Urbanization (from lat. urbanus - urban) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers changes in the distribution of productive forces, and above all in the population distribution, its demographic and socio-professional structure, lifestyle and culture.
Cities existed in ancient times: Thebes on the territory of modern Egypt was the most big city world as early as 1300 BC. e., Babylon - in 200 BC. e.; Rome - in 100 BC e. However, the process of urbanization as a planetary phenomenon dates back twenty centuries later: it was the product of industrialization and capitalism. Back in 1800, only about 3% of the world's population lived in cities, while today it is already about half.
The main thing is that urbanization creates a complex knot of contradictions, the totality of which serves as a weighty argument for considering it from the point of view of global studies. It is possible to single out economic, environmental, social and territorial aspects (the latter is highlighted rather conditionally, since it combines all the previous ones).
Modern urbanization accompanied by the deterioration of the urban environment, especially in developing countries. In them, it has become threatening to the health of the population, has become a brake on overcoming economic backwardness. In the cities of developing countries, the manifestations and consequences of a series of crises are intertwined, with detrimental effects on all aspects of their lives. These crises include the ongoing population explosion in developing countries, hunger and malnutrition of a large part of their population, causing a deterioration in the quality of human potential. The state of the environment is especially unfavorable in cities in the largest centers with a population of over 250 thousand inhabitants. It is these cities that are growing especially fast, increasing their population by about 10% per year. There is a destructive violation of the ecological balance in the largest and largest centers of all regions and third world countries.
The relationship between urbanization and the state of the natural environment is due to a number of factors in a complex system socio-economic development and interaction of society and nature. Understanding the general and specific features of the state of the natural environment in the cities of developing countries is important for developing a long-term strategy for international cooperation in the field of global problems of the population and the environment. Large and largest centers have become the focus of most of the global problems of mankind. It is they who have the greatest impact on the state of the environment over vast areas.
Among the factors that determine the state and quality of the natural environment in the cities of developing countries, the most important are:
Circumstances such as the chaotic nature of urban development, the huge crowding of the population both in the central and peripheral parts of cities, the limitations of integrated urban planning and legislative regulation(which is typical for most developing countries). There are very frequent cases of direct proximity of built-up and densely populated residential areas and industrial enterprises with outdated technology and no treatment facilities. This further worsens the state of the environment in cities. The state of the natural environment in the cities of developing countries presents a challenge to their sustainable development.
The spatial aspect of urbanization is connected with all the previous ones. The “spreading” of agglomerations means the spread of the urban way of life to ever larger territories, and this, in turn, leads to an aggravation of environmental problems, to growing traffic flows (“agglomeration and encirclement”), to the pushing of agricultural and reactionary zones to the far periphery.
Environmental problems are currently of paramount importance for humanity. The activity of mankind in the development of nature has been irreversibly destructive in the last century. This activity leads to a continuous increase in carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere, which can cause global climate change as a result of the "greenhouse effect". The growth of material production entails such irreversible processes as pollution of the seas and oceans, the atmosphere, the depletion of the planet's ozone layer, the disappearance of forests, the desertification of the Earth (40% of its land), the reduction of fresh water reserves, soil erosion, etc.
The artificial environment created by man is gradually and relentlessly advancing on the natural environment, threatening to swallow it completely in the near future. We must not forget that man is one of the biological species and, as a biological species, he can exist only in certain favorable conditions for his life (which he actively destroys).
Economic progress has been and is being achieved through ecological regression. The main reason for the contradiction between the economy and ecology is the installation of a person on a consumer attitude towards nature. An ecological catastrophe can be prevented only through the awareness of society of its responsibility for the state of its habitat and the development of clear legal norms that limit the anthropogenic impact on nature, which are mandatory for all countries.
War and Peace. Since the middle of the 20th century, the problems of war and peace have ceased to be local. The question is cardinal: "To be or not to be for humanity in general." This is due to the emergence and spread of, first of all, nuclear weapons, which are capable of destroying all life on Earth. The number of nuclear warheads is currently three thousand times more powerful than the number of explosives used in World War II (3.6 tons per inhabitant of the Earth). The use of nuclear weapons can lead not only and not simply to the destruction of part of the population. There are other consequences: 1) creating the effect of "nuclear winter" - the explosion of "only" one percent of the nuclear charges accumulated on the planet will lead to the destruction of all life, because. clouds of ash from fires and firestorms (caused by explosions) will make the planet's atmosphere practically impenetrable to sunlight, a sharp drop in temperature will occur (by 50-60 degrees) and all living things will die; 2) the appearance of an electromagnetic pulse that affects power plants and disables devices; 3) radioactive contamination of the area for many hundreds and thousands of years (even if someone remains, the question arises: how to live?).
The threat of a global nuclear war comes primarily from US militaristic circles. It is the military-industrial complex that determines the policy of the ruling elite in this country, which prefers military decisions in international relations. The situation in the world becomes more and more explosive after the collapse of the USSR and the transition from a bipolar world to a unipolar one, when one country (the United States) takes on the role of a world gendarme and tries to impose its understanding of the world order and its values on other countries (as in the situation with Iraq).
A serious problem, fraught with the outbreak of a third world war, are regional conflicts and crises that give rise to civil wars, world terrorism, national and religious extremism already on a global scale. Many modern political scientists and sociologists, primarily S. Huntington, name the following as the causes of these conflicts:
1) the struggle of the "poor South" with the "rich North";
2) clash of civilizations with their different religious foundations (Christianity and Islam).
An effective solution to the problems of a national, regional and planetary scale is possible in a non-violent way, on the basis of dialogue and mutual understanding. The path to peace on Earth is complete and general disarmament. Otherwise, it will escalate tension and war.
demographic problem. The demographic factor (birth rate, death rate, population density and migration) exerts significant pressure on the socio-natural environment on a global scale. Population growth rates increase with the development of civilization: if before the 19th century it took 1000 years to double the population, after 1850 - 80 years, at present the population doubles every 50 years. The earth is capable of feeding 60 billion people, this "critical" threshold will be reached by 2150-2200. Already, 2.5 billion of the world's 6.5 billion people are starving.
Demographic processes since the 1960s are largely determined by two opposite trends: 1) "population explosion" - a sharp increase in population in Asia, Africa, Latin America: in China, the population will increase from by 2040 - 300 million more, India - from 1 billion to 1 billion. 600 million by 2050, Pakistan from 147 million to 375 million by 2050, Vietnam from 78 to 130 million by 2040, etc. ; 2) "zero growth" of the population in the countries of Western Europe. The first trend leads to a sharp aggravation of socio-economic problems in developing countries, primarily - lack of work, hunger, illiteracy and disorder of tens of millions of people. The second trend is leading to a sharp aging of the population in developed countries and its reduction in general. According to Western political scientists, the population in developed countries (the rich North) in 100 years will be only 10% of the total population of the planet. Which can lead to a military confrontation between the small rich North and the overpopulated poor South and the beginning of a third world war. They are trying to solve the demographic problem in developing countries by implementing a state policy of control (reduction) over births, in developed countries, on the contrary, by encouraging births. However, the results in this direction are disappointing.
Keywords and concepts: global problems of mankind, demography, ecology, nuclear winter, population explosion, Club of Rome.
Control questions and tasks
1. Why in the twentieth century. did such a topic arise in philosophy as “global problems of mankind”?
2. What is the danger of modern wars on the planet?
3. What are the prospects for population on Earth in the near future?
