UDK 314 (=512.36)
Badaraev D.D. Badaraev D.D.
Internal migration processes in modern Mongolian society
Internal migration processes in modern Mongolian society
The article is devoted to the consideration of migration processes in modern Mongolian society. Based on statistical data, using the results of recent studies, the causes, factors and consequences of internal migration of the population from countryside Mongolia to the urbanized centers of the country. The problem of nomadic animal husbandry as the basis for preserving the culture and traditions of the Mongolian people is touched upon.
Keywords: Mongolian society, internal migration,
modernization, urbanization, nomadism
Article is devoted to consideration of migratory processes in modern Mongolian society. The reasons, factors and consequences of internal migration of the population of Mongolia from rural areas to the urbanized centers of the country are analyzed on the basis of data of statistics and results of researches of the last years. Also the problem of nomadic animal husbandry, as bases of preservation of culture and traditions of the mongolian people is mentioned
Key words: mongolian society, internal migration, modernization, urbanization, nomadism
Modern Mongolian society was formed as a result of socio-economic and political transformations of the last 20 years, after the transition to a relatively new, previously unknown path of development. The beginning of a radical reorientation to the path of market relations is considered to be the year 1990. The socialist system collapsed. The victory of the democratic revolution in Mongolia led the country to gain a de facto independent status in international relations. The transformational processes of the transition period were ambiguous for the population of the country, since for many citizens gaining freedom turned out to be a heavy burden that not every yesterday's ideologically backed Mongol could cope with. The change in the forms of ownership on the basis of the Law on privatization in the country adopted in 1992, a series of crisis phenomena in the economy, the episodic impact of galloping inflation up to 325% per year had a negative impact on the broad masses of the population, on their social well-being, which led to a noticeable decrease in the level of life. The social sphere of Mongolia has undergone significant changes,
BADARAEV Damdin Dorzhievich, Candidate of Social Sciences, Researcher at the Institute of Mongolian Studies, Buddhology and Tibetology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Ulan-Ude). Email: [email protected]
The work was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Foundation-Ministry of OKN of Mongolia, 2012-2013, No. 12-23-03002a/Mon, "Return" of Russia to Mongolia: models and scenarios"
because in it there were forced phenomena and processes due to the action of market laws. At the same time, the processes of transformation of the Mongolian society opened up wide opportunities for the free movement of the population of Mongolia both within the country and abroad in search of better conditions life.
The issues of population migration in modern Mongolian society are considered in the works of V.V. Grayvoronsky, N.Galiyma, H. Gund-sambuu, Ts. Tsetsenbileg and other researchers, as well as in a number of scientific works of academic and educational institutions Mongolia. Modern processes of population migration are becoming topical issue for such a pastoral country as Mongolia, implying the aggravation of social problems of society, such as unemployment, poverty, mobility labor resources, increasing the load on the infrastructure of urban areas, as well as solving issues of a civilizational nature related to changing the lifestyle and way of life of the original nomads of the Mongolian steppes.
Pastoral nomads are forced to adapt to new market conditions by applying various strategies for the development of their households. The most important basis for the inclusion of nomads in the processes of modernization is their high adaptive potential, developed by previous generations, as well as thousands of years of experience in adapting to the conditions of the surrounding world. The ability to quickly adapt to changing environmental conditions helps representatives of the nomadic society to minimize losses. As a number of studies show, with the transition to a market economy, about 60-70% of the Mongols received or rather received the opportunity to increase their income, respectively, improve the socio-economic situation of their families. Only 30-40% say that market system negatively affected their social status. Thus, migration or movement within the country and abroad is one of the main channels for the adaptation of the nomadic Mongols to the modern processes of globalization, modernization and integration. However, unregulated migration flows of the population lead mainly to various consequences, both positive and negative, which becomes the subject of discussion when adopting socio-economic and political programs for the development of the country, including demographic ones.
We consider it expedient to present the statistical data of 2011 . The population of Mongolia amounted to 2811.6 thousand people, of which 2704.5 thousand people live permanently in Mongolia, 107.1 thousand people live outside the country. Economically active population is 1124.7 thousand people, of which 1037.7 thousand people are employed (employment rate - 62.5%), 87.0 thousand people. - unemployed (unemployment rate - 7.7%). Per 1000 people: the death rate was 6.9, the birth rate - 25.1, the marriage rate - 4.3, the divorce rate - 1.2. The average life expectancy in the country was 68.3 years: for men - 64.7 years, for women - 73.7 years. 1287.1 thousand people lived in the capital of the country in Ulaanbaatar. On average, for 1 sq. km. less than 2 people in the country. The trend of urbanization of the country continues. Internal migration of the population to cities, in particular in central regions and to the capital of the country continues.
share rural population country - 33.8% (915.4 thousand people), urban - 66.2% (1789.1 thousand people). Issues of the quality of life of the population remain not fully resolved, especially in rural areas, as evidenced by the indicators of poverty and average living wage. The poverty rate in the country was 29.8%,
while in cities this figure is 26.6%, and in rural areas - 33.3%. Average the subsistence minimum in the country amounted to 117.8 thousand tugriks (the exchange rate of 1 ruble = 42 - 45 tugriks). In 2011, Mongolia ranked 155th in the world in terms of gross domestic product.
Under the conditions of modernization, one of the significant signs of a change in the social composition of the population is the processes of rural-urban migration of the population. The ratio of the urban and rural population in Mongolian society has an originality associated, on the one hand, with the processes of renomadization, and on the other hand, with urbanization. According to V.V. Graivoronsky, “for the first time since the middle of the 20th century, when an intensive process of industrialization and urbanization of the country began, in 1989-2000 the growth rate of the rural population (17.2%) outpaced the growth rate of the urban population (15.2%), which indicated a slowdown in the pace of urbanization and, moreover, about the reverse process, that is, about the outflow of part of the urban population to the countryside. At the same time, the average annual growth rate of the rural population in 1989-2000 increased to 1.6% against 1.3% in 1979-1989. It was during these years that the process of renomadization was observed, that is, the reverse transition of part of the population from a settled way of life to nomadic and semi-nomadic. This phenomenon was of a short-term nature, since it was associated with the deterioration of living conditions in the cities of Mongolia. In the future, the process of urbanization intensified, urban population began to grow faster than agriculture. Indeed, the latest facts and figures indicate that the process of urbanization will only continue in the direction of intensification. The most significant factors of internal migration in modern Mongolian society are considered to be:
The loss of livestock as the main source of livelihood, " movable property» nomad. The reasons for the decrease or loss of livestock can be: lack of fodder (dzut), depletion of pastures due to climatic conditions, mass attacks of wolves, infectious diseases of animals, cattle theft, etc. Together, these reasons contribute to the impoverishment of pastoralists and, ultimately, they cannot withstand fierce competition with the most prosperous and wealthy pastoralists and are forced to migrate to cities;
High unemployment in rural areas (up to 18-20%). Due to the limited scope of employment, lack of income in the conditions of the steppe, some pastoralists are ready to perform low-skilled, seasonal or temporary work in cities in order to provide themselves with food, satisfying at least their primary needs;
The deterioration in the quality of education in many rural schools is pushing parents to give their children the opportunity to receive a better education in aimag (district) centers or cities. Some parents move with their children when they enter high school or higher education. educational establishments, and some change their place of residence to the city after the employment of children;
Limited access to social and health services. The lack of doctors of narrow specialties and the poor supply of medical equipment in the hospitals of somons and aimags causes high costs for villagers who travel to large cities for examination and treatment;
Lack of electricity, communications and transport. According to some information, 130 soums are not connected to electrical networks, 180 thousand pastoralists do not have the opportunity to enjoy the benefits of civilization;
Low solvency of the rural population, limited market sphere, weak infrastructure. Entrepreneurial people prefer to relocate to cities in order to conduct their business.
Intensive internal migration flows to the urbanized regions of the country entail an aggravation of the social problems of society, which have deep socio-economic roots. On the example of the capital of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, one can see the scale and speed of this process. In April 2007, the millionth milestone was overcome in the capital, Ulaanbaatar was inscribed 452nd in the list of world cities with a million population, and in Asia - 182nd. The population density of the capital is 222 people per 1 sq. km, almost every second inhabitant of the country lives in Ulaanbaatar. There are 4.2 people per each metropolitan family. On average, 78 people immigrate to Ulaanbaatar every day from aimags and cities, and 29 people leave back. The number of foreigners coming on official business, as well as as tourists or for temporary residence, is 1284 people.
The given data demonstrate the trend of accelerating migration and urbanization of the population in the capital of Mongolia. Both positive and negative changes in the social sphere of Ulaanbaatar are associated with these processes. The positive consequences of migration to cities include: improved competition in the labor market, an increase in the proportion of citizens of the working population, market expansion, an increase in the purchasing power of the population, the provision of social services, access to education, and medical services for migrants from rural areas.
The negative factors of internal migration to cities, including the capital, are more associated with the appearance of a large number of migrants from rural areas in the suburbs, in the so-called "yurt microdistricts". This phenomenon entails a deepening of inequality, an increase in the level of poverty, unemployment, an aggravation of social tension, an increase in the level of crime, antisocial and deviant forms of behavior, and alcoholization of the population. The expansion of yurt microdistricts becomes a big problem in solving the problems of urban planning, the entire strategy of social economic development capital of the country. The low level of infrastructure development, the underdevelopment of the network of social institutions, schools, clinics, kindergartens in such territories puts the leadership of the capital in a difficult position, as the scale of problems is constantly expanding. One fifth of the residents of the capital are not provided with the most necessary things, they live in conditions of limited access to education and medical services. Due to their low solvency, 79.4% of rural migrants are not provided with electricity, 25.5% do not have permits for the land they occupy. In addition, the problem of environmental safety of overpopulated territories is aggravated. Air pollution in the capital exceeds the permissible limits by 28 times, which is mainly due to the use of coal in yurts, as well as an increase in the number of vehicles in the capital. The load on the soil cover is increasing, which exceeds the standards by 10-16 times. The widespread appearance of unauthorized toilets, garbage and garbage dumps does not have the best effect on the general condition of these territories, demonstrating a high level of pollution. The negative consequences of internal migration of the population to the capital of the country are a complex of interrelated social problems of urbanism. The solution of such problems requires coordinated action on the part of the authorities.
government, public organizations, as well as international financial institutions actively supporting Mongolia in solving the problems of poverty, unemployment, social sphere, medicine and agriculture.
The state of the migration issue in the rural areas of Mongolia demonstrates rather negative consequences than positive ones. The decrease in the number of young people in rural areas and the migration of families to cities destabilize the sustainable development of rural areas; declining productive force in the agro-industrial sector, since 74% of migrants are aged 15-64 and 26% are 0-14; with a decrease in the number of rural population, the development of production is limited and the volume of the rural market decreases, the already low density of the rural population decreases, “desertification” of vast territories occurs, pastoralists leave their previously inhabited nomadic pastures. However, there is another, but very interesting, trend characteristic of rural areas: a change in the ratio of the urban and rural population in favor of the former does not lead to a decrease in the number of livestock in the country. 154.9 thousand families or 311.2 thousand cattle breeders with a total number of 36335.8 thousand heads of cattle are involved in the traditional sector of the economy - cattle breeding. The internal policy of the state, aimed at the further development of cattle breeding, helps to maintain the livestock population at a certain level, despite the strongest dzut (lack of fodder) in 2010, when, according to various estimates, more than 8 million heads of livestock died in the country (in 2009, the livestock population was 44023, 9 thousand head.). Agriculture occupies in the structure country's GDP third place with an indicator of 13%, after the mining industry - 21.7% and wholesale and retail trade - 18.9%. The growth of Mongolia's economic development in 2011 by 14.1% demonstrates, in our opinion, the prospects for further economic growth, with possible positive consequences in the social sphere.
Thus, for last years internal migration to the cities and aimag centers of Mongolia began to gradually gain momentum, there is a tendency to increase the share of the urban population. In this regard, consideration and solution of the issues of internal migration, its causes, factors and consequences is the most urgent social problem in Mongolian society. The current situation requires further evidence-based study, monitoring studies, the results of which must be used to develop optimal solutions for the socio-economic development of overpopulated territories and the rational use of the country's labor resources in various sectors of the economy. The most important task is the development of extractive and processing industries, the establishment of private property in rural areas while maintaining the traditional nomadic animal husbandry, which has absorbed the millennial experience of life, traditions and culture of the Mongolian ethnic group.
Literature
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Transliteration according to GOST 7.79-2000 System B
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Mongolia is a country that is located in East Asia, borders on Russia, China and has no access to the sea. Vast territories of the country, some of which are not very suitable for life, are unevenly populated. At the same time, Mongolia boasts a rapid pace of economic development and a fairly high standard of living for the population. Mongolia has observer status in most international organizations.
The first attempts to establish the Mongolian state were made by disunited tribes that settled the territory of modern Mongolia 850 thousand years ago, in the 4th century BC. The Huns then united to fight the Chinese tribes and ruled over the Mongolian steppe until 93 BC. Later, the Hunnic Empire was replaced by several Kirghiz, Turkic and Mongol khanates. None of them managed to gain a foothold in the Mongolian lands for a long time: a nomadic lifestyle, militancy and insufficiently authoritative power - all this caused disunity.
A more stable union of tribes went down in history under the name Khamag Mongol and became the basis of the future Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan. But already from the end of the 13th century, cultural differences, the death of the strongest ruler, the endless redistribution of power and the heterogeneity of the population of the state caused the beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde.
For the next several centuries, the Mongolian steppes were occupied by various rulers, empires and nationalities: the Yuan Empire, the Northern Yuan dynasty, the Chinese Qing Empire, ruled by the Manchu dynasty, until 1911. When the Xinhai Revolution thundered in China, which put an end to the empire, and a national revolution arose in Mongolia itself, statehood as such did not exist on the territory of modern Mongolia.
New Mongolia in 1915 was recognized as an autonomous part of the Republic of China, and nine years later, the independence of the state was proclaimed again (for the first time in 1911). However, until the end of World War II, the independence of Mongolia was recognized only by the USSR.
The Mongolian People's Republic was characterized by some features of Soviet power: repression, collectivization, destruction of monasteries, and later perestroika. The aggression of Japan was reflected by the joint actions of the USSR and Mongolia. The modern history of Mongolia began with the adoption of a new Constitution in 1992 and a change in political course.
Mongolia is a parliamentary republic with a diverse population. The head of state is the president, the executive power is represented by the government, the legislative power is represented by the parliament, which is called the State Great Khural. In the localities, power remains in the hands of local governments, which are elected for a term of four years.
In 2008, a domestic political crisis occurred in Mongolia, which provoked riots in the capital of the state (Ulaanbaatar) and caused a change of government and re-election of the president. The current president of the state is Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, and the ruling party is the Mongolian People's Party (MNP).
In terms of territory, the state occupies the nineteenth place in the world, being quite large. The area of Mongolia is 1,564,116 km², which is commensurate, for example, with half of Yakutia. Most of the country (in terms of geographical features) is occupied by a plain with several towering ridges and mountain ranges. The Gobi Desert is located in the southern part of Mongolia.
All sources of fresh water originate in the mountains and are fed by several large tributaries. Mongolia has a large number of lakes, many of which are temporary, that is, they form during the rainy season and disappear during the drought.
The area of Mongolia and the location of the state make the climate sharply continental. The average temperature in the winter season ranges from -25 to -35 degrees, in summer it is within the same values with a plus sign. Precipitation decreases from northwest to south.
Mongolia, whose population is unevenly distributed over the territory of the state, is divided into 21 aimags, with a total of 329 somons, and the capital Ulaanbaatar. The largest city is expectedly the capital, with one and a half million permanent residents. The administrative center is followed in terms of population by the aimag Khuvsgel (114 thousand people), Dornogovi (109 thousand people) and Uverkhangay (100 thousand people).
A characteristic feature of Mongolia is the presence of temporary settlements, in connection with which an address system different from the standard one is used. So, in Mongolia there are no usual names of cities, streets, numbers of houses and apartments, and addresses are replaced by digital codes that allow you to locate an object on the ground with an accuracy of one meter. Moreover, the longer the code, the more accurately you can determine the location of the object. The system is suitable for use on a global scale, and is actively used in digital cartography and navigation systems.
The economy of Mongolia is developing extremely dynamically, and the state itself is the largest sales market in the entire Asia-Pacific region. According to the latest forecasts, the state's economy will grow at least 15% per year in the short term.
The main industries of Mongolia are represented by:
Considering the employment of the population, it can be noted that most of the able-bodied citizens are employed in agriculture(41%), slightly less in services(29%) and trade (14%).
Mongolia sends oil products, equipment (both industrial and industrial) and consumer goods for import (the population is provided with everything necessary). Main partners in international trade are Russia, China, Japan and South Korea.
The Central Bank has the same functions as similar institutions in other states. The currency of Mongolia is the Mongolian tugrik, which was put into circulation in 1925. To date exchange rate on average this: 2405 tugriks = 1 US dollar. Even though there is National currency Mongolia, are also in circulation American dollar(used in almost all areas, except for payment public services) and Russian ruble or euro, which are accepted in small shops (mainly in the capital) and markets.
By the way, prices in Mongolia pleasantly surprise tourists. You can buy memorable souvenirs, products made from natural wool and leather, carpets in the capital at a lower cost than in Russia. Food prices are moderate. So, lunch will cost an average of 6-7 dollars.
The population of Mongolia is characterized by mono-ethnicity, the predominant number of urban population (even despite the large employment in agriculture), positive natural increase, a large number of dialects in the linguistic affiliation of the population and a diverse religious composition.
The population of Mongolia according to the data for 2015 is 3 million 57 thousand people. The inhabitants of the capital account for one third of the total number of citizens. The nature of the resettlement of citizens across the territory of the state will be discussed in more detail below.
The natural increase of the population is 28 persons per 1000 citizens per year. This fact allowed the population of Mongolia to quadruple between 1950 and 2007. Back in 1918, the population of Mongolia was only 647 thousand people, and by 1969 it was already twice as many. Any correct data on the number of inhabitants until 1918 was not preserved due to the difficult history of the formation of statehood, when the territories of Mongolia were part of other countries, and the indigenous population was oppressed.
The average population density in Mongolia is almost 2 people per square kilometer. This indicator was the reason for placing the state in last place (195th line) in the list of world population density. The most densely populated (5-6 people per square kilometer) in Mongolia are the valley of the Orkhon River and the mountainous regions of Khangai - the most livable areas to the west of the capital.
Vast territories (40%) of the state are of little use for comfortable life due to natural features. The population density is a record one person per 10-15 square kilometers, part of the territories remains completely uninhabited.
Mongolia (the population is predominantly representatives of the Mongolian group) is a mono-ethnic state. The dominant ethnic group is divided into several clans of Turkic origin, sub-ethnic groups and close ethnographic groups.
In addition to the indigenous population, which makes up just over 82% in total, Turks, Russians and Chinese live in the country. There are only 1,500 Russians in Mongolia, while as many as 20,000 lived in the late 1980s. Mostly Old Believers fled to the neighboring state, fleeing religious persecution in their homeland. There are currently several hundred Chinese living in Mongolia, while in the 60s the number of immigrants from China in Mongolia reached 25 thousand people.
The diversity of closely related ethnic groups predetermines minor, but still pronounced linguistic differences. The state (Mongolian) includes several dialects:
Turkic dialects are also widespread:
Teaching in the capital of the state is also conducted in Kazakh.
In 1945, the Mongolian language was translated into Cyrillic with the addition of two more distinct letters. Old Mongolian is not used today, although attempts to restore the language have been repeatedly made. To this day, Tibetan is widely used in religious practices, in which works of art, religious and scientific treatises were written in past centuries.
The main religion in Mongolia is modified Buddhism (53%). At the same time, in the capital, the majority of Christian, not Buddhist temples (197 versus 63). Most of the population are atheists (38%). Religious diversity is also represented by Islam, shamanism, Christianity and some other religions.
Mongolia, whose standard of living in most sources remains beyond the scope of the narrative, is a fairly developed state with a stable economy. Until now, people leading a nomadic lifestyle have remained in the country, but their existence is facilitated by the numerous benefits of civilization. The capital is like most modern cities. So, today Mongolia is confidently opening a “window to the big world” for itself.
By the end of the 21st century, the population of Mongolia may be reduced to 1 million
Mongolia belongs to countries with a small population, according to the latest data, only a little more than 2,400 thousand people live here. Such a small number of people living in a large area of 1.5 million km2 is due to many historical and economic factors.
The heyday of the Mongol Empire, the beginning of which was laid by Genghis Khan, fell on the XII-XIV centuries. The population rapidly increased due to the annexation of the conquered territories. Then, over the course of several centuries, Mongolia from a once strong rich state began to gradually turn into one of the most backward countries in the world, in which, as researchers note, 800 thousand people lived in the 18th century. In the same period, the population increased 3.1 times in China, 2.9 times in India, and 4 times in Russia.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the population of Mongolia was reduced to 500 thousand people, and it seemed that the country was waiting for a gradual extinction. According to the 1918 census, 648.1 thousand people lived here, of which 100 thousand Chinese, 5 thousand Russians and 540 thousand Mongols.
The people's revolution of 1921 gave a certain impetus to the revival of the nation, although the rate of population growth was slowed down until the 50s due to a number of reasons, the main of which were very high infant mortality and death from epidemics. The population of the country during this period reached only 772 thousand people.
However, starting from 1951, thanks to the consistent policy of the state aimed at improving the well-being and raising the standard of living of the Mongols, the demographic situation began to improve, and by the beginning of the 80s, Mongolia already had 1.5 million inhabitants. So, in 1956, 16.8 thousand children were born in the country, in 1960 - 40.7 thousand and the population growth was 43.2 people per 1000 population. True, it should be noted that this "peak" year did not continue, and a downward trend in birth rates began to be observed, which continued for the next 30 years.
With the beginning of democratic processes and economic reforms in Mongolia, as in many countries of the former socialist camp, a sharp deterioration in demographic situation. If in the 60-80s families with 5-7 and even 10 children were considered the norm in Mongolia, then the socio-economic crisis that has arisen in the country since the early 90s has had a negative impact on the birth rate. Having 2-3 children is now considered optimal for many families. Moreover, it was noted that the higher the well-being of the family, the fewer children in it. According to experts, the irreplaceable losses of the state over this 10-year period amounted to 300 thousand people - unborn citizens of the country.
Based on the materials of the 1989 population census, specialists from the National Statistical Bureau, together with scientists from the Academy of Sciences of Mongolia, made a forecast according to which by 2020 the population of the country could reach 4 million people.
Is this possible under the current conditions? In terms of lowering the birth rate, Mongolia today far exceeds even the PRC, where a tough population policy. According to the 1999 census data, 2,382,500 people lived in Mongolia, which is 16.1% more than in 1989. However, over the past 10 years, the average annual population growth has declined. At the same time, there is a significant bias towards the outflow of the population from the countryside to the city, which negatively affects the decline in the birth rate in the country, since the growth in the number of Mongolian residents mainly occurs in the countryside. Only in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, about 800 thousand people or almost a third of the country's population currently live.
Thus, it is becoming increasingly clear that by 2020 Mongolia is unlikely to be able to overcome even the 3.5 million barrier. As scientists say, population growth now is just the inertia of the period of the 70-80s, when the birth rate was at more high level. This inertia will end when girls born during declining birth rates since the 1990s reach reproductive age. This period falls on 2010. It is from this period that the population growth will end and a downward trend will be outlined. And if this situation persists for several years, then, as scientists suggest, by the end of the 21st century, the country's population may decline and amount to 1 million people.
Demoscope's note. Reproducing the information-rich article by A. Altman, Demoscope still cannot agree with his interpretation of the decline in the birth rate in Mongolia from 5-7 and even 10 children per family to 2-3 as "a sharp deterioration in the demographic situation." Demoscope does not share the skeptical attitude of the author of the article to the outflow of the rural population to the cities. Both the decline in the birth rate and urbanization are global processes of the past and present centuries, without which social, economic and demographic modernization is impossible.
What do most people know about Mongolia? This is a poor backward country. People live in yurts, ride horses and graze cattle. And no one knows what's going on in the big world. Oh well.
The area of the country is simply amazing, although this is only a small part of their ethnic lands and only 4% of the area of the Mongol Empire. Most of this territory looks like a Martian desert, and only the paved road, small rivers in the valleys and rare roadside cafes remind you that you are still on Earth.
And then the Mongolian reality abruptly sets in.
Today Mongolia is one of the most rapidly developing economies in the world, with a standard of living disproportionately higher than the average for Russia. Most of the population lives in cities, urbanization is getting higher and higher every year.
The “Soviet friendship” is long over here, now there is democracy and a full-fledged market economy, without bribes-kickbacks and state regulation, international standards quality and a strong desire to become the second Korea. And no, not North.
At the entrance to the parliament sits like Darth Vader, a no less famous character named Genghis Khan, who at one time united all the Mongol tribes into a single Mongol Empire, which eventually subjugated a third of all mankind.
Lonely among modern architecture stands a typical Soviet project "Russian Drama Theatre".
The shape of the roof of one of the hotels looks like a slide, which would be fun to slide down. If you put a trampoline. ^_^
It is a rare case when in a gallery of modern art you can tell from the exhibits which country you are in. Horses are very popular here.
One of the characteristic features of Mongolian painting is the active use of contrast. Their paintings are almost always bright and have some sort of opposition, be it in subject matter, priorities, or color scheme.
The Gallery of the Union of Mongolian Artists has a workshop where everyone can learn from the masters. Sometimes children are brought here, and sometimes even older people come to learn the trade.
Modern office buildings lots of. And no less new ones are being built around, and sites are bought out even at the construction stage, because new corporations appear like mushrooms after rain.
The more surprising among all this look the ancient Buddhist monasteries.
Buddhism came to Mongolia a very long time ago, but spread gradually (but bloodlessly, unlike Christianity). Among the famous characters, Godan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was the first to learn Buddhism. It took about 300 years before a new religion replaced shamanism.
Of course, it wasn't just that. Like any other religion, accepted as a state religion, this is an exclusively political tool. To teach the grandson of Genghis Khan came the spiritual leader of Tibet, Sakya Pandita, with his nephew Pagba Lama. They taught Buddhism to the Mongols, and the Mongols taught the Tibetans to hold on to their nation with their teeth in any situation.
Plan of Ulaanbaatar version of 1913, when Mongolia finally gained independence from China. It especially marked the residences and temples of the Bogd Khan, who led the "people's revolution". The Bogdo Khan was so loved that even after the transition to communism, he remained a monarch and only his buildings survived the fire of religious purges inspired by the Soviet Union.
Did I already say that contrasts are their national feature?
Decided to go inside to see what the Mongolian looks like shopping center. Not bad so.
I really want to support such domestic producers.) Hmm, Meanwhile in Russia.
There are also many different Japanese, Korean and European nishtyakov for sale. A little more expensive, of course, but not critical.
But the Korean staff is, of course, the most impressive. :D
Hello to the Louvre with its pyramid.
Bus stop. By the way, it’s not so easy to deal with transport here: instead of key points (squares, monuments, museums), directions like “Tausand → Myangat-1 → Baga Toorog → Khoroolol-11” are indicated here, and one can only guess whether he is going to central square Genghis Khan to the parliament or will be taken far, far north to the slums.
The National Gallery of Modern Art was located in a Soviet building and there was such a fat woman sitting at the entrance who immediately switched to Russian when she saw my student card. I was already thinking about leaving, but then I saw spurs hanging down through three floors and changed my mind.)
I directly felt how I was squeezed at this point by narrow walls. The case when abstractionism is really catchy.
"My brain after the session."
The Tibetan deities of anger in themselves do not leave indifferent, but here in general there is something that emerges from the darkness and through the contour of the pleading Mongol, brr.
There are a lot of Mongolian restaurants in the city. In short, it's meat, meat, some lettuce, and more meat.
I'm going to see what the outskirts of the city looks like.
Selbe, one of the rivers on which the city stands. In fact, it is mountainous and, therefore, not always like this, it just dries up at different times of the year and then fills up again.
The Mongols have as many as 10 types of writing, some of which are still used today. Cyrillic-based writing is the main one, Latin and vertical old Mongolian script are used in parallel, the monks also have an alphabetic-syllabic letter “soyombo” (in general, some kind of game that looks like a flown encoding, universal writing for Mongolian, Tibetan and Sanskrit). They roll out as best they can.
Gandantegchenlin or simply Gandan. The largest Buddhist monastery, in the best of times, about 14,000 people lived here. After total repressions against believers, it was closed, but 10 years later it was opened again and until the collapse of the USSR, it was the only functioning church in the country.
Now everything is slowly being restored, many people are returning to the faith. Strictly speaking, no one refused it, it was just not customary to demonstrate it. Now 150 people constantly live, study and work in the monastery (yes, only 1% of the previous number).
Inside the central building stands a gigantic statue of the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara (whose incarnation is considered the Dalai Lama), the height of a nine-story Soviet building.
Along the walls of the building there are racks with small identical figurines of buddhas, a total of a thousand pieces. I don’t remember why such a quantity is needed, but there is also some kind of stoned symbolism there.
The Buddhist University is not some miserable Sunday school for you, here is a real assembly line of the enlightened! Seriously, they teach sutras, sing and meditate there.
Not far from the monastery there is the Zanabazar Museum of Art, which exhibits a collection of various religious artifacts, made so technically that they decided to classify them as art objects. For example, this is actually not a picture, it is an embroidery of unrealistic accuracy.
It seems to me, or did this bodhisattva refuse to go into nirvana at all for the sake of saving humanity? -_-
However, these deities generally have their own atmosphere.
Many places in the city center have lanes for the blind. There are also bike paths for pedestrians. >_<
Nothing unusual, just a Mongolian inch with a lollipop sitting on a sunflower tree.
Expensive club houses in a new area of the city. On the other hand, the perimeter is fenced, and near the private sector - also with barbed wire.
A shopping center on the outskirts of the city, literally immediately behind which the mountains begin.
Great residence of the Bogd Khan.
The inside is no less beautiful. The ground floor is open to the public and filled with purely religious art, which he adored. Upstairs are apartments and reception rooms.
There are several other buildings around, some for meditation, some for meetings, some for servants.
Everything is decorated in the same style.
There is especially a lot of their traditional embroidery. I have no idea how they managed to make it so accurate, you can even see the faces on the necklace of demon heads.
Winter residence. Well, still, Ulaanbaatar is the coldest capital in the world, in winter the temperature reaches -40 ° C.
Among the monotonous household items, a European carriage catches the eye. It turned out to be a personal gift from the Russian Tsar.
New residential complex. The apartments are still only for sale, and some shops and cafes are already working downstairs.
Every Mongolian city has a large statue of Buddha.
Cool facade of the shopping center.
Nothing inside either. Judging by the design, at first it was planned to make separate boutique rooms à la department store, but then they decided to make an open space and replaced all the walls with glass. It turned out even nicer than expected.
On one of the hills in the south of the city, during the times of socialism, they made an observation platform and dedicated it to the joint actions of the Soviet and Mongolian armies. First, the Russians helped to defend independence from China, and then the Mongols helped to defeat Germany. Friendship is magic.
But the view from here is really good. It also shows how vast the area is occupied by the poor private sector in the north.
However, even not far from the center there are small ghettos where people still live in yurts, without water and gas, except that they conduct electricity there by connecting to the general power grid. Fortunately, every year there are more and more residential buildings, and there are fewer and fewer of them.
Another river, the Dund, supplies the city with water all year round.
Mongolian national dish "mountain of meat". Nothing extra.
And I could eat borscht.)
“Oh, cool, Soviet department store,” I thought.
I went to the supermarket downstairs. Ukrainian "Roshen" even got here.
And inside something is not a department store at all. And with such a pace, soon only our archaic associations will remain from the Soviet past in this country.
With such a shaky picture of the world, I went back to Russia.
