With the help of individual indices, changes in production volumes, cost prices of specific types of products compared to the base one can be studied. There are 3 types of aggregate indices: the value of products of the turnover of physical volume and prices for products. The index of the value of goods turnover shows how the volumes of products or goods turnover have changed in value terms in the reporting period compared to the base one due to two factors: a change in the volume of products in physical terms; b price changes for...
If this work does not suit you, there is a list of similar works at the bottom of the page. You can also use the search button
Plan
11.1 The concept of economic indices and their classification.
Index is called a relative indicator that characterizes the ratio economic phenomena in time, in space and in comparison with the plan.
With the help of indices, the development of the economy as a whole and its individual sectors is analyzed, the most important indicators are formed to characterize the standard of living of the population, inflation, prices, incomes and other indicators.
Indices are classified by the following features:
Individual indicesare determined separately for each element of the population according to the formula:
With the help of individual indices, changes in production volumes, prices, and the cost of specific types of products compared to the base one can be studied.
General (group) indices are determined for the entire complex population, the elements of which are not amenable to direct summation, and are determined by the formula: ; where is the commensurator ( specific gravity, quantity, price) of the studied attribute of the population element, respectively, in the reporting and base periods.
Dynamic indexesreflect the change in the phenomenon over time and are most common in economic analysis.
In turn, dynamic ones can subdivideinto basic and valuable(if indicators are compared for more than 2 periods).
Basic Indicesare obtained by comparing the data of each period with the data of any one period taken as the base of comparison.
Chained indices obtained by comparing each level with the previous one.
Territorial indicesare used to compare socio-economic phenomena related to the same period of time, but to different territories (cities, regions, countries).
Aggregate indexis defined as the ratio of the sum of the products of the indexed values, which are a set of heterogeneous elements, and their weights over the compared periods.
indexed valueis called a sign, the change of which being studied. Index weight is a value that serves for the purposes of comparing indexed values. When choosing the weight of the index, it is customary to be guided by the following rules: if you build an index of a quantitative indicator, then the weights are taken for the base period; when building an index of a qualitative indicator, the weights of the reporting period are used.
There are 3 types of aggregate indices: the cost of production (trade), physical volume and product prices.
shows how the volume of output (or turnover) has changed in value terms in the reporting period compared to the base period due to two factors:
a) changes in production volumes in physical terms;
b) changes in product prices.
Where - the number of products in physical terms, produced, respectively, in the reporting and base periods; - prices per unit of production, respectively, in the reporting and base periods.
shows how the volume of output has changed in physical terms in the reporting period compared to the base period, and is determined by the formula:
Product price indexshows how the average prices for manufactured products have changed in the reporting period compared to the base period, and is determined by the formula:
There is a dependency between the indicated indices:
Depending on the initial information and the calculation of a specific index, average indices are used: arithmetic mean and harmonic mean. Average index is an index calculated as an average of individual indices.
If individual indices of production volumes are known, then the aggregate index of physical volume can be represented as the arithmetic mean index of the physical volume of production according to the formula:
where is the individual index of production volume, which is determined by:
If individual product price indices are known, then the aggregate price index can be represented as the arithmetic mean of the price index according to the formula: , where is the individual price index, which is determined by the formula:
Substituting the value () into the formula, we obtain the arithmetic mean index.
To determine the degree of influence of each factor on the dynamics of the average value,average indexes,which are subdivided into indices of variable composition, constant composition and structural shifts. With the help of indices of average values, they study the dynamics of average indicators: the average price and cost of production, the average wages, medium labor productivity and other quality indicators.
Let us consider the definition of average value indices using the example of studying the dynamics of the average price of goods.
Variable Composition Price Indexshows how the average price for a group of goods changed in the reporting period compared to the base price due to two factors:
a) price changes for each type of product;
b) change in the structure of sales of these goods.
Where average prices for a group of goods, respectively, in the reporting and base periods; prices for certain types of goods, respectively, in the reporting and base periods; - the number of goods sold of each type in physical terms, respectively, in the reporting and base periods;
Permanent composition price indexshows how the average price for a group of goods has changed in the reporting period compared to the base one only due to prices for each type of goods, and is determined by the formula:
The fixed composition price index is equal to the aggregate price index.
Price Index of Structural Shiftsshows how the average price for a group of goods has changed in the reporting period compared to the base one only due to a change in the structure of sales of goods, and is determined by the formula:
There is a relationship between the indicated indices:
Basic formulas for calculating summary or general indices
|
Index name |
Formula |
What shows index |
What does the index value decrease by 100% |
What is the difference between the numerator and denominator |
|
Index of the physical volume of production (by price) |
How many times has the cost of products changed as a result of a change in the volume of its production, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the cost of products due to a change in its physical volume |
What is the percentage change in the cost of production as a result of a change in the volume of its production |
By how many rubles has the cost of production changed as a result of an increase in a decrease) in the volume of its production |
|
|
Index prices |
How many times has the cost of products changed as a result of price changes, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the cost of products due to price changes |
By what percentage did the cost of production change as a result of price changes? |
By how many rubles has the cost of production changed as a result of an increase (decrease) in prices |
|
|
Index of production value (turnover) |
How many times has the cost of production changed, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the cost of production in the current period compared to the base |
By what percentage has the cost of production changed in the current period compared to the base |
By how many rubles has the cost of production changed in the current period compared to the base |
|
|
Index of the physical volume of production (at cost) |
How many times have the costs of production changed as a result of a change in the volume of its production, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the costs of production due to a change in the volume of its production |
How many percent have the costs of production changed as a result of a change in the volume of its production |
By how many rubles have the costs of production changed as a result of a change in the volume of its production |
|
|
Production cost index |
How many times have the costs of production changed as a result of changes in the cost of production, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in production costs due to changes in the cost of production |
By what percentage have the costs of production changed as a result of a change in the cost of production |
By how many rubles have the costs of production changed as a result of changes in the cost of production |
|
|
Production cost index |
How many times have the costs of production changed, or what percentage was the increase (decrease) in the costs of production in the current period compared to the base |
By what percentage have the costs of production changed in the current period compared to the base |
By how many rubles have the costs of production changed in the current period compared to the base |
|
|
Index of the physical volume of production (by labor intensity) |
How many times have the time spent on the production of products changed as a result of a change in the volume of its production, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the time spent on the production of products due to a change in its physical volume |
By what percent did the time spent on production change as a result of a change in the volume of its production |
How many man-hours have changed the time spent on production as a result of an increase (decrease) in the volume of its production |
|
|
Labor intensity index |
How many times have the time spent on production changed as a result of a change in its labor intensity, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the time spent on production due to a change in its labor intensity |
By what percent did the time spent on production change as a result of a change in its labor intensity |
By how many man-hours did the time spent on production change as a result of an increase (decrease) in its labor intensity |
|
|
Index of time spent on production |
How many times have the time spent on production changed, or how many percent was the increase (decrease) in the cost of production in the current period compared to the base |
How many percent have the time spent on production changed in the current period compared to the base |
How many man-hours costs have changed time for production products in the current period compared with basic |
Other related works that may interest you.vshm> |
|||
| 3340. | Methods for the study of dental status. Practical development of caries intensity indices and hygiene indices | 17.45KB | |
| Sets of temporary and permanent teeth. The leading role in determining the level of oral health is played by the quantitative characteristics of damage to the teeth and periodontium, determined using various indices. One of the main indexes is the intensity of tooth decay by caries. For this purpose, the determination of quantitative values of KPU is used where K is the number of carious untreated teeth P is the number of treated filled teeth Y is the number of extracted teeth or teeth to be removed. | |||
| 9328. | The concept of price and price classification | 25.97KB | |
| The concept of price and price classification. Determining the price of goods in terms of inflation. The concept of price and their classification PRICE is the monetary expression of the value of the goods. | |||
| 6470. | triggers. The concept of a trigger and the classification of triggers | 594.7KB | |
| Their output signals depend not only on the current values of the input signals, but also on the state of the trigger at the previous time. The generalized trigger structure is shown in fig. Generalized structure of a trigger A trigger necessarily contains feedbacks. The state of the trigger is determined by the signal: when it is said that the trigger is in a single state. | |||
| 1249. | Legal system of society: concept, structure and classification | 39.3KB | |
| Currently, as a rule, criteria for the classification of legal systems are used, based mainly on ethnographic technical-legal and religious-ethical signs of law. In accordance with the goal set, the following tasks are solved in the work: to study the legal system as a category of the theory of state and law; consider the classification of the main legal systems of the world; explore the modern legal system Russian Federation. The subject of research is the concept of legal systems and legal families as a special ... | |||
| 7045. | Information Systems. Concept, composition, structure, classification, generations | 12.11KB | |
| Properties information system: Divisibility of allocation of subsystems, which simplifies the analysis, development, implementation and operation of IS; Integrity is the consistency of the functioning of the subsystems of the system as a whole. The composition of the information system: The information environment is a set of systematized and organized in a special way data and knowledge; Information Technology. Classification of IS by purpose Information management systems for collecting and processing information necessary to manage an enterprise organization ... | |||
| 19337. | The concept and classification of state benefits to citizens with children | 212.75KB | |
| 1 Benefit for pregnancy and childbirth. The Federal Law On Burial and Funeral Affairs2 secured the right of funeral directors to receive appropriate benefits or, at their preference, to free services for burial in an amount not exceeding the allowance. Types of state benefits for citizens with children federal law the following types of state benefits are established: - maternity allowance; ... | |||
| 17473. | The concept and classification of costs for the production and sale of products. Product quality management | 31.86KB | |
| Product quality management General theory of quality management and management Universal scheme of product quality management. Product quality management category. Product quality management bodies. | |||
| 16855. | Axiomatics of influence indices in the problem of voting with a quota | 55.29KB | |
| Nizhny Novgorod branch of the State University Higher School of Economics Nizhny Novgorod Axiomatics of Influence Indices in the Voting Problem with Quota 1. Introduction Influence measurement is an effective tool for decision analysis. The classical methods of measuring influence with the help of the Banzhaf and Shapley-Shubik indices Shpley Shubik 1954 Bnzhf 1965 are widely used. Of particular interest is the axiomatic description of influence indices. | |||
| 16808. | The relationship between the dynamics of stock indices and business activity in Primorsky Krai | 12.36KB | |
| This is the reason for the interdependence between the prices of goods and the dynamics stock indices and as a consequence of the business and investment activity of participants in the global economy and, therefore, of each individual enterprise, regardless of its scale and type of activity. Comparison of the dynamics of indices of various sectors of the economy reflects the rate of change in the value of shares of companies in the sectors represented, which is evidence of their business activity and development rates. The purpose of this work is to identify the relationship between stock indices and indicators ... | |||
| 16452. | Construction of price indices in the form of a generalized average using the CES utility function | 38.01KB | |
| For more than two hundred years of practice in economic statistics there are some traditions of using certain calculation formulas for calculating price and volume indices. In general, the aggregation of prices and volumes is based on various methods of averaging using different weight coefficients, comparative bases, etc. The price index found ... | |||
.Index in statistics called a relative indicator that characterizes the change in the magnitude of a phenomenon (simple or complex, consisting of commensurate or incommensurable elements) in time, space or in comparison with any standard. The main element of the index relation is the indexed value. Indexed value- the value of the sign of the statistical population, the change of which is the object of study. Indices are classified according to three criteria: according to the content of the studied objects; extent of coverage of population elements; methods for calculating general indices. According to the content of the studied quantities indices are divided into indices of quantitative and indices of qualitative indicators. Indices of quantitative indicators- indices of the physical volume of industrial and agricultural products, the physical volume of retail trade, etc. All indexed indicators of these indices are volumetric, since they characterize the general, total size (volume) of a particular phenomenon and are expressed in absolute values. When calculating such indices, quantities are valued at equal, comparable prices. Quality indexes- indices of the exchange rate, prices, cost, labor productivity, wages, etc. The indexed indicators of these indices characterize the level of the phenomenon per one or another unit of the population. Such indicators are called qualitative. They measure not the volume, but the intensity, the effectiveness of a phenomenon or process. As a rule, they are either average or relative values. The calculation of such indices is based on the same, constant quantities of products. By the degree of coverage of population units indexes are divided into two classes: individual and general. Individual indices serve to characterize changes in individual elements of a complex phenomenon. General index reflects the change in all elements of a complex phenomenon. At the same time, a complex phenomenon is understood as such a statistical set, the individual elements of which are not directly subject to summation. If the indices do not cover all the elements of a complex phenomenon, but only a part, then they are called group or sub-indices. By calculation methods there are aggregate and average indices, the calculation of which constitutes a special method of research, called the index method. Individual indices are denoted by the letter i and are provided with a subscript of the indexed indicator: iq is an individual index of production volume, etc. The general index is denoted by the letter J and is also accompanied by a subscript of the indexed indicator: Jp is the general price index, etc. Calculation individual indices is simple, they are determined by calculating the ratio of two indexed values: the individual index of the physical volume of production iq is calculated by the formula: , where q1, q0 are the quantity (volume) of goods produced in the current (reporting) and base periods, respectively; individual price index ip: , where p1, p0 are the price of a unit of the same product in the reporting and base periods, respectively. Any general indexes can be constructed in two ways: as aggregate and as averages of individual ones. The latter, in turn, are divided into arithmetic averages and harmonic averages. Aggregate indices of qualitative indicators can be calculated as indices of variable composition and indices of constant (fixed) composition. General indices give a generalizing numerical characteristic, and with the help of general indices aggregate elements with directly incommensurable values are generalized. The following problems occur when building shared indexes: 1. you need to select the elements that should be combined in one index; 2. choose the right co-meter or weight, i.e. constant feature. The choice of weight depends on which feature is indexed - quantitative or qualitative. The basic form of general indexes is the aggregate form. The aggregate form index is built using the sum method. The aggregate form is used if we have element-by-element data in the reporting and base period . Turnover index:; index of physical volume of production: ;
Index(lat. index - indicator, index, inventory, register) is a relative indicator expressing the ratio of the values of the attribute of the phenomenon under study in time, space or comparison of actual data with data taken as the basis for comparison.
Indexes are used
to characterize the implementation of the plan(for example, a plan for the release of products (works, services), reducing the cost of products (works, services), increasing labor productivity),
to study the dynamics(for example, a study of changes in wholesale and retail prices for certain types of goods, the volume of products (works, services), real and nominal income of the population),
to compare the levels of socio-economic phenomena across territories.
Tasks solved with the help of economic indices:
§ calculation of the dynamics of a socio-economic phenomenon over a period of time;
§ calculation of the dynamics of the average economic indicator;
§ calculation of the ratio of indicators by region;
§ calculation of the impact of changes in the values of some indicators on the dynamics of other indicators;
§ recalculation of the values of indicators from actual prices to comparable ones.
Indices are among the most important generalizing indicators.
The classification of economic indices is shown in Figure 7.1.
When calculating indices the values of the indicator are compared in reporting period with the value of the same indicator for the previous (base) period. Forecast and planned indicators can also be used as a basis for comparison. Dynamic indexes are basic and chain;
Chained indices are obtained by comparing the indexed value of the subsequent period with the indicator of the period preceding it. In this case, the comparison base is constantly changing.
Basic Indices obtained by comparing the indexed indicator of each period with the corresponding indicator of any one specific period, taken as the base of comparison.
Rules for building indexes:
The sign that characterizes the reporting period refers to the sign that characterizes the base period. But there are exceptions - indicators that have an inversely proportional relationship with each other;
With the primary feature being studied, the feature-weight affecting it is taken at a constant basic level. When studying a secondary feature, the feature-weight that affects it is used at a constant level of the reporting year.
Individual indexis a relative indicator expressing the change in a separate element of a complex economic phenomenon. The individual index is denoted by the letter “i”.
i x = x 1 / x 0
where i x - calculated individual index by factor x;
X 1 - the value of the reporting indicator; X 0 - the value of the baseline;
if the standard (x n), planned (x pl), reference (x e) indicator is taken as the base of comparison, then
i x = x 1 / x H, where x n - normative indicator;
i x \u003d x 1 / x pl, where x pl - planned indicator;
i x \u003d x 1 / x e where x e is the benchmark.
CLASSIFICATION OF ECONOMIC INDICES
Figure 7.1. Index classification.
Composite indexexpresses the ratio of the magnitudes of a complex economic phenomenon, consisting of elements that are directly incommensurable. The composite index is indicated by the letter “I”
The main formula for calculating the composite index is an aggregate formula, in which, using the weights of the index, incommensurable values are reduced to a commensurate form. For example, the index of the physical volume of production can be calculated using the following formula:
where q 0 and q 1 - the number of products for the base and reporting periods; p 0 - index weights - constant prices of the base period.
Aggregate index is a form of composite index used to characterize the change in a complex economic phenomenon.
Aggregate form elements:
an indexed value, the change of which is shown by the index ( X);
some constant value called the weight of the index ( f); with the help of weights, incommensurable values of a complex socio-economic phenomenon lead to a comparable form.
Individual indices of prices, physical volume of sales, turnover.
The concept of indices
In statistics, an index is understood as a relative value (indicator) that expresses the change in a complex economic phenomenon in time, in space, or in comparison with a plan. In this regard, there are dynamic, territorial indices, as well as indices of the implementation of the plan.
Many social phenomena consist of directly incomparable phenomena, so the main issue is the question of comparability of the compared phenomena.
Whatever economic phenomenon the indices refer to, in order to calculate them, it is necessary to compare different levels, which refer either to different periods of time, or to a planned task, or to different territories. In this regard, distinguish Basic period (the period to which the value being compared belongs) and Reporting period (the period to which the compared value belongs). When calculating, it is important to correctly choose the period taken as the base of comparison.
Indexes can refer either to individual elements of a complex economic phenomenon, or to the entire phenomenon as a whole.
Individual indices
Indicators that characterize the change in more or less homogeneous objects that make up a complex phenomenon are called Individual indexes – x.
P - price
q - quantity
t - time
T - number
f - salary
F - salary fund
S - sown area
y - yield
z - cost
An index is named after the indexed value.
In most cases, the numerator is the current level and the denominator is the base level. The exception is Purchasing power index of the ruble.
Indices are measured either in the form Percent(%), or in the form Odds.
Composite Indices
The complex phenomena for which the composite index is calculated are distinguished by the fact that the elements that make them up are heterogeneous and, as a rule, are incommensurable with each other. Therefore, comparison of simple sums of these elements is impossible. Comparability can be achieved in various ways:
(1) complex phenomena can be broken down into such simple elements that are to a certain extent homogeneous;
(2) comparison by cost, without breaking down into individual elements.
The purpose of the theory of indices is to study the methods of obtaining relative values used to calculate the overall change in a number of heterogeneous phenomena.
|
Basic |
Reporting |
|
Turnover value index
Turnover price index
Index of physical volume of trade
The problem of choosing weights
If the indexed value is Qualitative current period.
If the indexed value is Quantitative sign, then the weight is taken at the level basic period.
Composite indices in aggregate form allow us to measure not only the relative change in individual elements of the phenomenon under study and the phenomenon as a whole in the current period compared to the base one, but also the absolute change.
Chained and basic indices with constant and variable weights
Chained indices :
The sum of the products of the individual chain indices gives the basic index for the corresponding period.
Basic Indices :
Quotient of dividing the subsequent basic index by previous index gives us the chain index for the corresponding period.
The advantage of composite indexes with constant weights is that they can be compared with each other, as well as obtain chain indices from basic ones and vice versa.
For indexes with variable weights, this rule is not preserved.
With constant weights, indices of the physical volume of production are calculated, and with variable weights, indices of prices, costs, and labor productivity are calculated.
Deflator index is used to convert the values of cost indicators for the reporting period into the cost indicators of the base period.
Indexes with variable weights can be used to build the deflator index.
Indices of constant composition, variable composition and structural shifts
In those cases when we analyze the change in time of compared products, we can raise the question of how the components of the index (price, physical volume, structure of production or sales of individual types of products) change under different conditions (in different areas). In this regard, indices of constant composition, variable composition, and structural shifts are built.
Permanent (fixed) composition index its form is identical to the aggregate index.
|
An association |
Basic |
Reporting |
||
The price for both enterprises changed by 27.2%.
This index does not take into account the change in the volume of sales of products in various markets in the current and base periods.
Variable Composition Index is used to characterize the change in the average price in the current and base periods.
Territorial indices
In statistics, there is a need to compare the levels of economic phenomena in space. To calculate the values are used Territorial indices. To calculate them, the corresponding indicators for all types of products are multiplied by the number of products produced in the entire region.
index method.
statistical indexes.
Importance in statistical research commercial activities has an index method. The indicators obtained on the basis of this method are used to characterize the development of the analyzed indicators over time, across the territory, to study the structure and relationships, to identify the role of factors in changing complex phenomena.
Indexes are widely used in economic developments state and departmental statistics.
Statistical index- this is the relative value of the comparison of complex aggregates and their individual units. At the same time, a complex is understood as such a statistical set, the individual elements of which are not directly subject to summation.
For example, the assortment of food products consists of commercial varieties, the primary accounting of which in production and in wholesale trade is carried out in natural units of measurement: milk - in liters, meat - in centners, eggs - in pieces, canned food - in conditional cans, etc. To determine the total volume of production and sale of food products, it is impossible to summarize the accounting data for heterogeneous commodity masses in natural meters. Data on the number of produced and sold various types of non-food products are not subject to direct summation. For example, it would be pointless to summarize the sales of fabrics (in meters), suits (in pieces), shoes (in pairs), etc. to obtain the total sales volume.
In these complex statistical aggregates, the units of observation are goods with different consumer properties. Data on the natural-material form of sale of individual commercial varieties are not subject to direct summation. To obtain generalizing (total) values in complex statistical sets, the index method is used.
basis index method in determining changes in the production and circulation of goods is the transition from the natural - material form of expression of commodity masses to cost (monetary) meters. It is through the monetary expression of the value of individual commodities that their incomparability as consumer values is eliminated and unity is achieved.
Individual and general indexes.
Depending on the degree of coverage of the generalized units of the studied population, the indices are divided into individual (elementary) and general.
Individual indices They characterize changes in individual units of the statistical population. So, for example, if in the study of the wholesale of food products, changes in the sale of individual commodity varieties are determined, then individual (one-commodity) indices are obtained.
General indexes They express the summary (generalizing) results of the joint change of all units that form the statistical population. For example, the indicator of the change in the volume of sales of the commercial mass of food products for certain periods will be a general index of the physical volume of trade.
An important feature of general indices is that they have synthetic and analytical properties.
Synthetic the properties of indices are that by means of the index method, a connection (aggregation) of generally heterogeneous units of the statistical population is performed.
Analytical The properties of the indices are that the influence of factors on the change of the studied indicator is determined by means of the index method.
To determine the index, it is necessary to compare at least two values. When studying the dynamics of socio-economic phenomena, the compared value (the numerator of the index ratio) is taken as Current(or reporting) period, and the value with which the comparison is made - for Basic period.
The main element of the index relation is indexed value. An indexed value is understood as the value of a sign of a statistical population, the change of which is the object of study. So, when studying price changes, the indexed value is the price of a unit of goods p. When studying the change in the physical volume of the mass of commodities, data on the quantity of goods in natural meters q act as an indexed value. The cost of production is denoted by s.
Individual indices are usually denoted i, and general indices - I.
The sign at the bottom right means the period:
Basic,
Reporting.
The index characterizing the dynamics of the wholesale Trade turnover. At the same time, a system of commodity turnover indices is used (see Index of physical volume of retail turnover). To reflect the dynamics of the volume of delivered goods, a supply index is built in comparable prices (physical volume of supply). Since the supply of food products is taken into account in natural units, their I. p. t. in comparable prices is built in aggregate form. The supply of non-food products is taken into account in cost units, therefore, I. p. t. in comparable prices is built on the basis of the index of the physical volume of trade using individual (or group) price indices.
In statistics under the index refers to a relative indicator that expresses the ratio of the magnitudes of a phenomenon in time, space or comparison of actual data with any standard (plan, forecast, standard, etc.).
In international practice, indexes are usually denoted by the symbols i and I (the initial letter of the Latin alphabet index). The letter “i” denotes individual (private) indices, the letter “I” denotes general indices. The sign at the bottom right means the period: 0 - basic; 1 - reporting. In addition, certain symbols are used to denote indexed indicators:
q - the quantity (volume) of any product in physical terms;
p - unit price of goods;
z - unit cost of production;
w - output in value terms per worker or per unit of time;
v - output in physical terms per worker or per unit of time;
T is the total time spent (tq) or the number of workers;
pq - cost of production or turnover;
zq - production costs.
All economic indices can be classified according to the following indicators:
degree of coverage of the phenomenon;
comparison base;
type of scales (co-meter);
form of construction;
the nature of the object of study;
· object of study;
The composition of the phenomenon
calculation period.
According to the degree of coverage of the phenomenon, the indices are individual and consolidated. Individual indices serve to characterize the change in individual elements of a complex phenomenon. Their example may be changes in the volume of production of certain types of products (TV sets, electricity, etc.), as well as in the price of shares of an enterprise. To measure the dynamics of a complex phenomenon, the components of which are directly incommensurable (changes in the physical volume of products, including heterogeneous goods, the price index of shares of enterprises in the region, etc.), composite or general indices are calculated.
If the indices do not cover all the elements of a complex phenomenon, but only a part of them, then such indices are called group or sub-indices, for example, indices of the physical volume of production for individual industries, price indices for groups of food and non-food products. Group indices reflect patterns in the development of individual parts of the studied phenomena. In such indices, their connection is manifested by the method of groupings.
According to the comparison base, all indices can be divided into two groups: dynamic and territorial. The first group of indices reflects the change in the phenomenon over time. For example, the price index for products in 1996. compared to the previous year; cost index consumer basket in August compared to July 1997.
When calculating dynamic indices, the value of the indicator in the reporting period is compared with the value of the same indicator for the previous period, which is called basic. However, both forecast and planned indicators can be used as the latter.
Dynamic indexes are basic and chain.
The second group of indices ( territorial) is used for interregional comparisons. These indices are of great importance in international statistics when comparing indicators of the socio-economic development of various countries. For example, the price index for photographic goods in Italy compared to Germany, the consumer basket index in Moscow compared to St. Petersburg.
By type of weight indexes come with constant and variable weights.
Depending on the form of construction aggregate and average indices are distinguished. The latter are divided into arithmetic and harmonic. The aggregate form of general indices is the main form of economic indices.
By the nature of the scope of the study general indices are subdivided into indices of quantitative (volumetric) and qualitative indicators. Such a division of indices is based on the type of indexed value. The first group of indices includes, for example, US dollar sales volume indices on the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange, and the second group includes the Deutsche mark exchange rate index.
By object of study indices are: labor productivity, cost, physical volume of production, cost of production, etc.
According to the composition of the phenomenon two groups of indices can be distinguished: constant (fixed) composition and variable composition. The division of indices into these two groups is used to analyze the dynamics of average indicators.
By calculation period indices are divided into annual, quarterly, monthly, weekly.
With the help of economic indices, the following tasks are solved:
measuring the dynamics of a socio-economic phenomenon for two or more periods of time;
measuring the dynamics of the average economic indicator;
measuring the ratio of indicators for different regions;
determination of the degree of influence of changes in the values of some indicators on the dynamics of others;
· recalculation of the value of macroeconomic indicators from actual prices to comparable ones.
Each of these tasks is solved using different indexes.
2. Individual and general indices:
Individual indices are obtained by comparing one-commodity phenomena. For example, the price index for sunflower oil is defined as the ratio of the price of this commodity in the current period to the price of the base period.
Individual indices are relative values of dynamics, plan fulfillment, comparison, and their calculation does not require knowledge of special rules.
Depending on the economic purpose, individual indices are: physical volume of production, cost, prices, labor intensity, etc.
The index of the physical volume of production is calculated by the formula:
This index shows how many times the output of any one product increased (decreased) in the reporting period compared to the base period, or what percentage is the increase (decrease) in the output of a product.
Individual price index
characterizes the change in the price of one particular product in the current period compared to the base.
Individual unit cost index
shows the change in the cost of a unit of production in the current period compared to the base.
Labor productivity can be measured by the amount of output produced per unit of time (v) or the cost of working time to produce a unit of output (t). So you can build:
The index of the quantity of products produced per unit of time:
Labor productivity index for labor costs:
Since there is an inverse relationship between the amount of output produced per unit of time and the cost of working time for the production of a unit of output, i.e.
then the index is obtained by dividing the value of the indicator in the base period by the value in the current period.
To characterize labor productivity, an individual index of output in value terms per worker is often used:
where p - comparable prices.
In economic calculations, general indices are most often used, which characterize the change in the population as a whole. The construction of these indices is the content of the index methodology. There are two concepts in the index theory: synthetic and analytical. They interpret common indexes differently.
According to synthetic concept, the peculiarity of general indices is that they express the relative change in complex (commodity) phenomena, the individual parts or elements of which are directly incommensurable, and therefore the indices are synthetic indicators. For example, industrial enterprises produce several types of products with different purposes. Therefore, by summing up the number of produced goods of various types, it is impossible to obtain an indicator of the physical volume of production. The methodology for constructing general indices provides, first of all, for bringing various commodity phenomena to a commensurable form.
AT analytical theory indexes are treated as indicators needed to measure the impact of change constituent parts, components, factors of a complex phenomenon to a change in levels, components, factors of a complex phenomenon to a change in the level of this phenomenon. For example, a change in the total value of trade in the current period compared with the base one is associated both with a change in the physical volume of sales of goods and with a change in prices for each type of goods. Therefore, the index methodology provides for determining the influence of each of the factors by eliminating the influence of other factors on the level of the phenomenon under study.
Thus, general indices are synthetic and analytical indicators.
General indices are built for quantitative (volumetric) and qualitative indicators. Depending on the purpose of the study and the availability of initial data, various forms of constructing general indices are used: aggregate or weighted average.
3. Aggregate index as the original form of the index:
Aggregate index- a complex relative indicator that characterizes the average change in a socio-economic phenomenon, consisting of incommensurable elements.
The Latin word "aggregate" means "added, summed up." The peculiarity of this form of the index is that in the aggregate form two sums of indicators of the same name are directly compared. At present, this is the most common form of indices used in practical statistics in many countries of the world.
The numerator and denominator of the aggregate index are the sum of the products of two quantities, one of which changes (indexed value), and the other remains unchanged in the numerator and denominator (index weight).
An indexed value is a sign, the change of which is being studied (the price of goods, the stock price, the cost of working time for the production of products, the number of goods sold, etc.). The weight of an index is a value that serves for the purpose of comparing indexed values.
Behind every economic index there are certain economic categories. The economic content of the index predetermines the method of its calculation.
The methodology for constructing an aggregate index provides for the solution of three questions:
1) what value will be indexed;
2) according to what composition of heterogeneous elements of the phenomenon it is necessary to calculate the index;
3) what will serve as a weight when calculating the index.
When choosing the weight of the index, it is customary to be guided by the following rule: if the index of a quantitative indicator is being built, then the weights are taken for the base period; when constructing the index of a qualitative indicator, the weights of the reporting period are used.
The cost of production is the product of the quantity of production in physical terms (q) by its price (p).
The index of the cost of production, or turnover (), is the ratio of the cost of production of the current period () to the cost of production in the base period () and is determined by the formula:
Such an index shows how many times the cost of production (commodity turnover) of the reporting period has increased (decreased) compared to the base period, or how many percent is the increase (decrease) in the cost of products.
Volume index of production is the quantitative index. In this index, the indexed value will be the quantity of products in physical terms, and the weight will be the price. Only by multiplying quantities of heterogeneous products that are incommensurable with each other by their prices, one can proceed to the costs of products, which will already be commensurable quantities. Since the volume index is an index of a quantitative indicator, the weights will be the prices of the base period. Then the index formula will take the following form:
where the numerator of the fraction is the conditional value of goods produced in the current period in prices of the base period, and the denominator is the actual cost of goods produced in the base period. If the object of study is a separate enterprise, then the index is determined by the totality of goods produced; when the object of study is an industry, the index is calculated on the basis of all goods produced in the industry, or their individual groups, depending on the purpose of the analysis. If the object of study is a region, then the index is calculated on the basis of goods produced by enterprises in the region.
The index of the physical volume of production shows how many times the cost of products has increased (decreased) due to an increase (decrease) in the volume of its production, or how many percent is the increase (decrease) in the cost of products as a result of a change in the physical volume of its production.
When constructing an aggregate price index, which under the conditions market economy is the most widely used indicator of inflation, proceed from the same assumptions as in the construction of the index of physical volume of production.
Price index is a quality index. The indexed value will be the price of the goods, since this index characterizes the change in prices. The weight will be the number of goods produced. Multiplying the price of a commodity by its quantity, we obtain a value that can be summed up and which is an indicator commensurate with other similar quantities.
The price index is determined by the following formula:
where the numerator of the fraction is the actual cost of the products of the current period, and the denominator is the conditional value of the same goods at the prices of the base period.
The index shows how many times the cost of products has increased (decreased) due to price reduction, or how many percent is the increase (decrease) in the cost of products as a result of price changes.
The cost of production can be thought of as the product of the quantity of a good and its price. Exactly the same relationship exists between the indices of value, physical volume and prices, i.e.:
The difference between the numerator and denominator of each multiplier index expresses the size of the change in the total absolute value under the influence of a change in one factor. The algebraic sum of these differences is equal to the difference between the numerator and denominator of the production cost index:
The equalities are fulfilled if, when calculating the index of the volume indicator, the weights were fixed at the level of the base period, and when calculating the index of the qualitative indicator, at the level of the reporting period.
4. Average indices:
In addition to aggregate indices, another form is used in statistics - weighted average indices. Their calculation is resorted to when the information available does not allow calculating the general aggregate index. So, if there is no data on prices, but there is information on the cost of products in the current period and individual price indices for each product are known, then it is impossible to determine the general cent index as an aggregate one, but it is possible to calculate the general index of the physical volume of production as a weighted average value.
The average index is an index calculated as the average of the individual indexes. The aggregate index is the basic form of the general index, so the average index must be identical to the aggregate index. When calculating average indices, two forms of averages are used: arithmetic and harmonic.
The arithmetic mean index is identical to the aggregate index if the weights of the individual indices are the terms of the denominator of the aggregate index. Only in this case the value of the index calculated by the arithmetic mean formula will be equal to the aggregate index.
The arithmetic average index of the physical volume of production is calculated by the formula:
The arithmetic average labor productivity index is defined as follows:
In statistics, another arithmetic average index is also widely known, which is used in the analysis of labor productivity. It is called the Strumilin index and is defined as follows:
The index shows how many times labor productivity has increased (decreased), or how many percent the increase (decrease) in labor productivity has been on average for all units of the study population.
Arithmetic average indices are most often used in practice to calculate composite indices of quantitative indicators, and from qualitative indicators - to calculate the two above indices.
Indices of other quality indicators (prices, cost, etc.) are determined by the formula of the average harmonic weighted value.
The average harmonic index is identical to the aggregate index if the individual indices are weighted using the terms of the numerator of the aggregate index. For example, the cost index can be calculated as follows:
and the price index:
Thus, the weights in determining the average harmonic prime cost index are the production costs of the current period, and the price index is the cost of production of this period.
Average indices are widely used in the calculation of aggregate indices. The most famous are the Dow Jones, Standard and Poor.
Dow Jones(Dow Jones Industrial Average Index) is defined as the arithmetic average of the values of stock prices listed on the New York Stock Exchange. One composite and three group indices are calculated every half an hour, and their value at the close of the exchange is published daily. Group indices are determined by the share prices of 30 industrial, 20 transport and 15 service companies. The overall index is calculated for all 65 companies. Their list was compiled in 1928. 1920 was chosen as the base year. The original methodology for calculating the index was developed by the founder and editor of the largest newspaper in the United States, the Wall Street Journal, Charles Dow.
Standard and Pura Index(Standard and Poor's 500 Stock Index) - an index calculated on the stock prices of the 500 largest companies on the New York Stock Exchange as a weighted average, taking into account the total number of shares issued by the company. The number of companies whose shares are included in the index includes 400 industrial corporations, 40 financial corporations, 20 transport corporations and 40 service industries.
5. Selecting the base and index weights:
The choice of the comparison base and index weights are two of the most important methodological issues of constructing socio-economic phenomena for a certain time interval, which includes more than two time periods.
index system is called a series of sequentially built indices. Such systems characterize the changes occurring in the studied phenomenon during the studied period of time.
Depending on the base of comparison, index systems are basic and chain.
Basic index system is a series of sequentially calculated indices of the same phenomenon with a constant base of comparison, i.e. the denominator of all indices is the indexed value of the base period.
Chain index system- this is a series of indices of the same phenomenon, calculated with a base of comparison that varies from index to index.
In economic and statistical studies, the choice of a system of indices (basic or chain) is carried out depending on the purpose of the analysis. The basic indices provide a more illustrative description of the general trend in the development of the phenomenon under study, while the chain indices more clearly reflect the sequence of changes in levels over time.
Chain and base index systems can be built for individual and general indexes. Systems of individual indices of the cost of production, the physical volume of production and prices are simple in construction. Similarly, they build systems of individual indices for other indicators.
Index system with constant weights is called a system of composite indices of the same phenomenon, calculated with weights that do not change when moving from one index to another. Constant weights make it possible to eliminate the influence of structure changes on the index value.
Index system with variable weights is a system of composite indices of the same phenomenon, calculated with weights that change sequentially from one index to another. The variable weights are the weights of the reporting period.
When studying the dynamics of qualitative indicators, it is necessary to determine the change in the average value of the indexed indicator, which is due to the interaction of two factors - a change in the value of the indexed indicator in individual groups of units and a change in the structure of the phenomenon. Under change in the structure of the phenomenon refers to the change in the proportion of individual groups of population units in the total population. Thus, the average salary at the enterprise may increase as a result of an increase in the wages of employees or an increase in the proportion of highly paid employees. The decrease in the labor intensity of production of a unit of output for the totality of enterprises in the industry may be due to an increase in labor productivity at enterprises or the concentration of production in factories with low labor intensity. Since two factors influence the change in the average value of the indicator, the task arises to determine the degree of influence of each of the factors on the overall dynamics of the average.
This problem is solved using the index method, i.e. by constructing a system of interrelated indices, which includes three indices: variable composition, constant composition and structural changes.
The variable composition index is an index that expresses the ratio of the average levels of the phenomenon under study, relating to different periods of time. For example, the index of the variable composition of the cost of production of the same type is calculated by the formula:
where is the variable composition index.
The variable composition index reflects a change not only in the indexed value (in this case, the cost), but also in the structure of the population (weights).
An index of constant (fixed) composition is an index calculated with weights fixed at the level of one of any period, and showing a change in only the indexed value. The fixed composition index is defined as an aggregate index. So, the index of the fixed composition of the cost of production is calculated by the formula:
where is the fixed composition index.
The index of structural shifts is understood as an index that characterizes the effect of a change in the structure of the phenomenon under study on the dynamics of the average level of this phenomenon. The index is determined by the formula (when studying the change in the average level of this phenomenon. The index is determined by the formula (when studying the change in the average level of cost):
where is the index of structural shifts.
7. The most important economic indices and their relationships:
There are interrelations between the most important indices, which allow obtaining others on the basis of some indices. Knowing, for example, the value of chain indices for a certain period of time, it is possible to calculate the basic indices. Conversely, if the basic indices are known, then by dividing one of them by the other one can obtain chain indices.
The existing relationships between the most important indices make it possible to identify the influence of various factors on the change in the phenomenon under study, for example, the relationship between the index of the cost of production, the physical volume of production and prices. Other indexes are also related. So, the production cost index is the product of the production cost index and the index of the physical volume of production:
The index of time spent on production can be obtained by multiplying the index of the physical volume of production and the value, the reciprocal of the index of labor intensity, i.e. labor productivity index:
There is an important relationship between the indices of the physical volume of production and the index of labor productivity.
The labor productivity index is calculated based on the following formula:
those. represents the ratio of the average production output (in comparable prices) per unit of time (or per employee) in the current and base periods.
The index of the physical volume of production is equal to the product of the labor productivity index and the index of working hours (or the number of employees):
The relationship between individual indices can be used to identify individual factors that affect the phenomenon under study.
8. Properties of Laspeyres and Paasche indices:
In the market economy, a special place among the indices of qualitative indicators is given to price indices.
The main purpose of the price index is to assess the dynamics of prices for industrial and non-industrial consumption goods. In addition, the price index acts as a general measure of inflation in macroeconomic studies; used when adjusting the legally established minimum size wages and tax rates.
Price indices are needed in the development of feasibility studies and projects for the construction of new enterprises. They cannot be dispensed with when recalculating the main indicators of the system of national accounts (total social product, national income, capital investments etc.) from actual (current) prices to comparable prices.
In this way, Price indices are needed to solve two problems:
Reflection of the dynamics of inflationary processes in the national economy of the country;
· recalculation of the most important cost indicators of the SNA from actual prices to comparable ones when studying the dynamics of socio-economic phenomena.
Two types of indexes are used to implement these tasks, which are different in content:
The actual price index
deflator index.
One of key indicators price statistics, widely used in the economic and social policy of the state, is index consumer prices(CPI). It is used to revise government social programs, serves as the basis for raising the minimum wage, reflects the real purchasing power of the money that various segments of the population have to meet their material, cultural and spiritual needs.
9. Ideal Fisher Index:
The price index of the American economist I. Fisher is the geometric mean of the product of two aggregate price indices of Laspeyres and Paasche:
The formula proposed by Fisher can also be used to determine the physical volume index:
The geometric form of indices has a fundamental drawback: it lacks a specific economic content. So, unlike the aggregate Laspeyres or Paasche index, the difference between the numerator and the denominator will not show any real savings (or losses) due to changes in prices or physical volume of production.
And Fisher called this formula for calculating the index the ideal formula. The ideality of the formula lies primarily in the fact that the index is reversible in time, i.e. when rearranging the base and reporting periods, the resulting “reverse” index is the reciprocal of the value of the original index. Any individual index meets this condition. For example, the price index is:
then the inverse price index is defined as follows:
If you multiply these two indices, you get 1:
This condition is satisfied by the ideal Fisher index:
The Fisher index, due to the complexity of the calculation and the difficulty of economic interpretation, is rarely used in practice. Most often, it is used in the calculation of price indices over a long period of time to smooth out trends in the structure and composition of the volume of production, in which there are significant changes.
Recalculation of the most important cost indicators of the system of national accounts (national income, gross national product, etc.) from actual prices to comparable prices is carried out using the deflator index. The deflator is a coefficient that converts the value of the cost indicator for the reporting period into the cost indicators of the base one. For example, the deflator index of gross domestic product (GDP) is a price index used to adjust the nominal volume of GDP for inflation and obtain its real volume on this basis.
The deflator index is calculated as the ratio of the actual cost of production of the reporting period to the value of the volume of production, the structure of which is similar to the structure of the reporting year, but determined in the prices of the base year. The calculation of the deflator index is based on the Paasche formula - an aggregate index formula with current weights.
Real GDP for 1998 is determined by the formula:
where is nominal GDP.
Thus, the deflator index is an independent indicator.
In statistical practice, deflator indices are determined not only in general by national economy; they are calculated for individual regions, various product groups, channels for the sale of consumer goods, sectors of the economy, etc.
4. Uniform forms statistical reporting:
Unified Documentation System (UDS) - a documentation system created according to uniform rules and requirements, containing information necessary for management in a particular area of activity.
Unified forms of documents are developed and approved by ministries and departments. They are mandatory for use in all institutions, organizations, enterprises, regardless of the form of ownership. The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation is developing medical documents, the State Committee of the Russian Federation on Statistics - forms of primary accounting and reporting documentation, the Federal Archives of the Russian Federation - a system of organizational and administrative documentation, etc. Unified documentation systems are established by OKUD.
It is possible to give a classification of documentation systems, the ratio of which in the office work of different institutions is not the same:
1. Organizational documents.
2. Administrative documentation.
3. Information and reference documents and reference and analytical documentation.
4. Planning documentation.
5. Reporting and statistical.
6. Personnel documentation.
7. Accounting documentation.
The list could be supplemented with other groups of documents: contractual documentation, protocol documentation of collegiate management bodies, tax documentation, social protection documentation (for relevant organizations).
Among the wide variety of documents of enterprises and organizations. included in the listed groups, organizational and administrative management documentation (ORD) occupies a central place. RD is classified into three groups: 1) organizational documents (charters, regulations, instructions, staffing, etc.); 2) administrative documentation (orders, instructions, resolutions, decisions, instructions, etc.); 3) information and reference documentation (letters, acts, protocols, certificates, etc.).
ORD is a part of other systems (personnel, accounting documentation, etc.), the so-called special systems. Unfortunately, in practice, in many cases, different groups of documents work according to their own rules, not united by common principles. It is necessary to characterize the individual groups of documents included in the proposed classification, as well as consider the rules for processing various types of documents.
When preparing documents, it is recommended to use Word for Windows version 6.0 text editor. and above using fonts Times New Roman Cyr size No. 12 (for tabular materials), 13, 14, 15, Times DL size No. 12, 13, 14 with 1-2 intervals.
Development stages of DDD (UFD):
USD consists of a set of interconnected unified
forms of documents (UFD), providing a documented presentation of data in certain forms economic activity; means of their conduct; regulatory and methodological documents for their development, maintenance and application.
For the all-Russian unified form of documents, the following stages of development are established:
1st stage - organizing the development of an all-Russian unified form of documents; It begins with the lead organization for the development of DDD preliminary research of the issue. In the course of this study, legislative and regulatory documents are being studied that establish certain norms, which should be reflected in the forms of unified documents of the DDD being developed. In addition to legislative and regulatory documents, the following are studied:
Branch (departmental) nomenclatures and lists;
Guiding documents;
Forms of documents used in traditional conditions to solve the problems for which the developed FFDs are intended.
In addition, a set of subsystems and tasks is determined for which the developed forms of documents are intended. The results of the study serve as the basis for the preparation of terms of reference for the development of DDD. The content of the terms of reference must comply with GOST R 1.2-92 and include the following sections: the basis for the development of DDD; development period; goals and objectives of developing DDD; characteristics of the object of classification; the structure of the DDD and the list of basic requirements for it; interconnection with other documentation systems and normative and technical documents; sources of information for the development of UFD; stages of work and deadlines for their implementation; additional instructions. At the same stage, the parent organization prepares and submits to the All-Russian Research Institute of Classification, Terminology and Information on Standardization and Quality (VNIIKI) for approval a list of organizations for mandatory approval and a list of organizations to which UFD projects will be sent for review. Technical task signed by the parent organization for the development of DDD, co-executing organizations and agreed with the organizations for mandatory approval and VNIIKI. Then this document is approved by the ministry (department) responsible for the development of the DDD, and after that it is sent to organizations with mandatory approval, VNIIKI, and co-executors.
2nd stage - development of the first edition of the draft all-Russian
unified form of documents;
3rd stage - development of the final version of the draft of the all-Russian unified form of documents;
4th stage - approval and registration of the all-Russian unified form of documents;
5th stage - replication of forms of document forms.
Unified reporting system:
Report- a document containing information about the results of activities for a certain period of time. The reporting documentation of the institution consists of several sets of documents: state statistical reporting; departmental reporting; internal reporting.
Forms of documents for state statistical reporting are developed by the State Statistics Committee of Russia and are mandatory for all institutions, organizations and enterprises. The procedure for the preparation and execution of state statistical reporting documents is established by the Regulations on the procedure for the provision of state statistical reporting in the Russian Federation, approved by the Resolution of the State Statistics Committee of August 14, 1992 No. 130. Forms of departmental reporting documents are developed by ministries and departments. central bank RF, State tax service Russian Federation and the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation submit forms accounting and reporting, tax reporting, mandatory for all organizations. Departmental reporting forms are being prepared federal authorities executive power, which carry out sectoral management.
State statistical and departmental reporting submitted in due time to the relevant territorial authorities. According to the terms of submission, it can be ten-day, monthly, quarterly, semi-annual and annual. Each institution draws up internal reporting on the implementation of plans, tasks, one-time instructions from the management or instructions from a higher organization. Reporting documents of this kind are prepared by specialists structural divisions and submitted for consideration by the management of this or a higher organization, Intra-institutional reporting documents may be called: a report or a statement of a reporting nature. State static and departmental reporting are compiled on the basis of approved unified forms and in accordance with approved regulatory documents. Intra-institutional reporting is compiled in a relatively free form. Reports are compiled on common form or a standard sheet of paper. Mandatory details report or certificate of a reporting nature are: the name of the organization, the name of the unit (if it is a report or a certificate of the work of the unit), the name of the type of document, the date, document number, place of compilation, title to the text, signature, stamp of approval (on reports) or resolution of the head (on the certificate of a reporting nature).
The heading of the report indicates: the name of the body or official whose results are reported in the document (“Report on the work of the attestation commission ...”; “Report on the work of the department.,.”); reporting period (for 2004, for the period from January to June 2003, for the 1st quarter of 2003).
The text describes the work performed, analyzes its results and presents conclusions and suggestions. If the report contains the results of work that was previously planned, the sequence of presentation of the report must correspond to the sequence of assignments in the planning document. The date of the report is the date of its approval by the head of the organization or a higher authority. An explanatory note may be attached to the reports.
5. Statistics of the mechanical movement of the population:
