The role of cities in the modern world. World cities and their role in modern world development. The Role of Cities in the Modern World Economy

world city- a major center playing an outstanding role in world development; by the definition of the British scientist P. Hall, a city in which "a very disproportionate part of the world's most important affairs is being implemented."

The term has long been used to denote the power of the city; has many interpretations from the standpoint of different disciplines. The British scientist P. Geddes introduced geo-urban studies in the most formalized form to designate a special role in the world economy and international relations of several major centers of the early 20th century. They included the capitals of the leading European countries (London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna), as well as a number of US centers (New York, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia). In the early 1980s a special contribution to the study of world cities was made by the American researcher J. Friedman, who, exploring the process of world urbanization in the context of development world economy along the path of transnationalization and internationalization of capital and production, put forward a hypothesis about the formation of a special system international centers, their relationship and subordination; proposed selection criteria and classification. According to Friedman, a true World City must meet a number of criteria: have a relatively large population; to be the place of concentration of the headquarters of the largest TNCs, international economic and geopolitical organizations; be a global financial center; an important manufacturing center on a global scale; a major transport and communication hub of international importance; have a highly developed business services sector.

There are several key lines in the identification of the phenomenon of the World City, based on different principles, but closed within the invariants of the combination of the three main parameters of the city's international influence: "space"; "time" and "scale of force":

1) from the standpoint of the historical-geographical approach, the World Cities include many centers of the Ancient World, preserved and gone; empires and metropolises, whose sphere of influence included colossal spaces inhabited by numerous peoples (for example, Babylon, Rome, etc.);

2) from the standpoint of modern ideas about the socio-cultural approach - they include the largest religious centers that have been shaping the consciousness and culture of huge human masses over the centuries (Jerusalem, Mecca, etc.);

3) from the standpoint of the geo-economic approach, these are, first of all, the centers of the world economy, concentrating financial, industrial, technical and partly cultural power, and determining the main trends in business activity within the framework of various spatio-temporal stages of the world. economic development(Venice, Antwerp, Genoa, Amsterdam, London, etc.);

4) from the standpoint of geopolitics - a number of powerful supercenters that have the appropriate tools and are responsible for the fate of the international community (for example, Moscow-Washington in a bipolar world).

Currently, the term is widely used to reflect the special international significance of the city in the most various fields business activity both in the scientific literature using identification in the form of various systems of geopolitical, geoeconomic, sociocultural and infrastructure indicators, and in the media without any criteria. Often misinterpreted as a synonym for a global city. It is proposed to consider the World City not as a specific term, but as a theoretical concept - a universal, implying a special role of the city in the development of human civilization. From these positions the World City acts, firstly as a unique and singular phenomenon; Secondly, its sphere of influence unambiguously has a planetary or, at least, macro-regional coverage; third, the world city personifies a concentrator of special power, whether on the path of ideology, religion, military force, innovative economy, etc.; fourthly, he acts as a hegemon, functions as a leading and managing element within the framework of another, “subordinate” territorial-social system; fifth, the spatial organization of such a system has a clearly expressed center-peripheral character; At sixth, there is a dominant one-, two-way connections that support the system.

global city is a post-industrial center deeply integrated into the structures of the world community and largely draws development resources as a result of interaction in global urban networks. The term first appeared in the early 1990s. in the works of Professor of Sociology at the University of Chicago S. Sassen to indicate the specifics of the formation of urban structures in the context of globalization and as an alternative to the long-used term "world city".

In the UN directories, super-large cities are singled out and clearly defined from a diverse and quantitatively significant category of millionaire cities into an independent group - mega-cities (megacities metropolises) and metropolitan areas with a population of 8 million or more.

metropolis- a large form of urban settlement, a city with a population of over 1 million inhabitants, a "millionaire city". The term "Megapolis" is involved in the hierarchical series of urban formations (occupies an intermediate position between the terms "large city" and "megalopolis"); dimension and rank is determined on the basis of population without taking into account socio-economic characteristics. In some cases, it can be used as an analogue of the term " megacity”(introduced into practice by UN specialists in the 1970s; designates a large city with a population of over 8-10 million inhabitants). Especially often used in journalism; has not been widely used in the scientific literature until recently.

Sassen highlights fundamental difference between the "global city" and the world, whose specificity is its functioning in the modern global economy, a special feature of the world city is its centuries-old history, while the duration of the existence of the global city is not of great importance for its functioning.

Global cities are metropolitan areas which have great world political, world economic and domestic significance and influence in the system of international relations due to the fact that they are associated with the origin and development of most key global processes.

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Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine Youth and Sports

Kharkiv National University of Construction and Architecture

Department of Architectural Design

Abstract on the topic:

"Concepts of a global and world city"

Etc. Ladygina I. V

Issue. Art. gr A-53

Fedorenko Y. V

Kharkiv 2013

The history of cities has more than ten thousand years. The reasons for their appearance and subsequent evolution are the subject of controversy among researchers representing various disciplines, as well as the very definition of "city".

Over a period of almost ten millennia, cities evolve from relatively small settlements with a few thousand inhabitants to large formations with a complex structure that perform economic, socio-political, cultural and scientific functions, which allows us to speak of completely different objects that we define such a simple term as "city".

All cities had their own history, which was determined by various factors: natural, socio-economic, ethnic and cultural, as well as the peculiarities of the development of the country and the region, which gives an idea of the features of cities (their "individuality") and their different evolution.

urban planning architecture global urbanization

Rice. 1 City of the 20th century

The 20th century is the "age of cities". The new cities number not even in the hundreds, but in the thousands; their geography is also extensive - it is America, Russia, Europe, Asia.

Each stage in a long history has its own specific features. A feature of the modern stage is the dominance of information technologies, due to which there is even a weakening of national territorial units, and conditions arise for the growth of units of other scales. These are supranational units that take on the appearance of certain global cities (from the English - world, global cities).

Terms similar in meaning are introduced into scientific use: world cities, super-cities, information cities, which have a justification and a right to exist. The term "global city" also helps to define the specifics of the modern world - globality. The global city becomes like an information center, and being in it resembles being in a dense information flow. At the same time, such a global city is not a single one, it seeks to expand its borders and merge with other cities so that the information flow does not break even for a minute. Such a flow passes through national formations, across borders.

A single language is being developed: professionals of any industry understand each other better than different social groups in one country. The number of contacts between global cities is increasing in various areas - in politics, culture, in social movements. Thus, the real space in which global cities are deployed fades into the background. The national is giving way to the global.

Rice. 2 Global Cities Architecture

In this new urban architecture, the difference between the cities of the two eras is also outlined: closed walls give a feeling of freedom, and a city devoid of walls takes this freedom away. A person in such a city is limited in his freedom. To make a person's life safe in a modern global city, the architects also offer a third type of building - a "bunker" (the idea of Virilio).

The earth is no longer so kind to man; he needs protection again. And defensive ditches, bastions, towers are returning to architecture. The bunker has no foundation, it can drift in the ocean. It is devoid of the geometry of classical architecture and similarities with the projects of ideal cities of the past. Such a bunker is very convenient in a global city - a city without national signs. This, in fact, is a convenient shell for a person and his habitat.

All these projects are not as fantastic as they seem at first glance. They fit perfectly into the plans for new human settlements proposed by the Greek urban architect Doxiadis. He affirms the legitimacy of the unlimited growth of cities and provides for the future creation of giant cities in the form of continuous strips located along transport routes - ribbon cities encircling the globe. And, of course, in such cities, buildings such as building-backlash, building-bunker and building-passage are conveniently and comfortably located.

The idea of Doxiadis should be countered by something concrete and at the same time quite universal. It is not surprising that in the late 1970s the idea of an ecological city, an ecopolis, appeared simultaneously in several countries. Strictly speaking, the tempting-sounding word did not mean much at first, except for the tendency clearly expressed in it to see the city as a settled territory and at the same time the central core of a larger inhabited territory. However, this is quite a lot, since for the first time urban planners, together with environmentalists and the public, began to understand by the word “settlement” something more than the development of a “niche” by a person for his momentary needs.

Rice. 3 Penang Global CITY CENTER project

The city exists in a natural context, transformed by human activities, and therefore the development of an ecopolis will certainly mean the desire to transfer the city to a “non-waste technology”. The task is clear - to minimize, ideally eliminate any harmful impact of the city on its environment. Previously, it seemed acceptable to divert or take away from the city its solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Over time, it turned out that there is no such distance that would guarantee the city itself from the “boomerang” effect, not to mention the inadmissibility of the “export” of harmful substances into the natural environment. Atmospheric flows, underground waters do not recognize boundaries: you can take water three dozen kilometers from a suburban park and in a few years make sure that there is not enough water for its fountains; it is possible to lay reclamation canals far from the city and after a short time find that the city cellars begin to fill with water or, on the contrary, the trees of the city park begin to dry.

All those who are professionally concerned with solving the problems of the city were bombarded with such an avalanche of new information that it was hard not to get confused. Moreover, in order to fully implement the recommendations of socio-ecologists, not so much additional gigantic funds are needed, but huge additional labor - both intellectual and physical.

It turned out that without the direct participation of thousands and thousands of citizens in the process of settling in and reconstructing the city on its way to the ecopolis, it is basically impossible to achieve the goal. But after all, people agree to voluntarily give their strength and time only when the goal and meaning of labor are clear to them, when the goal and meaning become their own, internal to them. It turned out by itself that the movement of citizens in defense of their right to participate in urban planning decisions meets with the increasingly recognized need of the city authorities and the experts they hired. The dialogue of designers, scientists, administrators, and those who were recently still rather insultingly called consumers, thus acquires the character of an objective necessity.

The path from the moment when a few enthusiasts are aware of the strategic task to the time when it is recognized by an active minority, and then by the majority of citizens, is not easy and long. However, there is no alternative. To implement the idea of an ecopolis in every city, large and small, not so much new means are needed as new thinking. Sermons, lectures, punishments will not help the cause - after all, what is at stake is that ecopolis consciousness should become a natural moral norm. It is a matter of getting used to the internal prohibition on barbarous action in relation to an ancient monument, or a living blade of grass, an animal and an insect, not because punishment or censure threatens for this, but because it is impossible to think otherwise. It is about getting used to the inner need to participate in the formation of the ecopolis - not only by wielding a shovel or pruner, but also by exploring, comprehending, discussing projects, making constructive proposals at all levels of the urban environment.

Does this mean that the architect-urban planner turns out to be an extra figure? No, on the contrary, it is now that he can deploy all the potential accumulated by the long history of the city. He, however, ceases to be a "priest" who creates projects and prescribes their strict observance. He, by the nature of his activity, retains the role of an initiator in a dialogue with the townspeople and acquires an additional role> an expert capable of giving a technically competent form to the proposals and criticisms coming from the townspeople themselves. The architect in our time has to master additional qualifications - projects and plans should be developed in a clear professional language, but in order for them to be understood, they need to be translated into a figurative and literary language that is intelligible to every intelligent person. The ability to carry out this kind of "translation" is accumulating rapidly, and it is time to move from scattered experiments to normal practice. The authors of the book were among those who devoted a quarter of a century of work to this kind of work, and we cannot but rejoice at the fact that the process of transforming the experiment into a norm has already begun. There is also a need for counter-movement. In order to “convict” a designer, it is enough for one temperament, multiplied by some one simple thought (like the statement that “everything” that remains of the past should be preserved). In order to conduct a constructive dialogue with the architect, one should have an in-depth understanding of the nature of the city, the language in which the life of the city can be fully reflected. Everyone should have such an idea today, without it there is no full-fledged city dweller.

Rice. 4 Moving city, architect R. Herron (1964)

Rice. 5 Design of an urban structure built on the principle of "Plug-in City"

Bibliography

1. Kareev N.I. Foreword by the translation editor//Max Weber. City. - Pg., 1923. - S. 3-6.

2. Ginzburg M.Ya. Green City. Reply to Le Corbusier//Modern Architecture. - 1930. - No. 1-2.

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Key Features
global cities
in the world system

ON THE. SLUKA
doctor geogr. Sci., Senior Researcher
Department of World Economy Geography
Moscow State University
them. M.V. Lomonosov

Recently, the formation of world, or global, cities has attracted increased attention. The idea of the phenomenon of the world city, which was previously considered as a phenomenon primarily single and unique, and now as a mass and typical phenomenon, is radically changing.

The classification of world cities is developed taking into account their role and interrelationships within a large segment of the global market for highly professional services. It is based on a scoring of the functions of cities in the field of four types of higher services - accounting and auditing, advertising, finance and banking, and insurance. Depending on the amount of points scored, all cities are divided into 12 categories (12th - the highest, 1st - the lowest). As a result of the analysis, 55 global cities were identified, including four - London, New York, Paris, Tokyo - of the highest category, and 67 cities with sufficient potential to acquire global status in the future (Table 1).

Category of world cities	Rank	Cities
Leading	12	London, New York, Paris, Tokyo
Leading	10	Los Angeles, Milan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Chicago, Frankfurt am Main
Main	9
	8	Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, Sao Paulo
	7	Moscow, Seoul
Minor	6	Amsterdam, Boston, Washington, Dallas, Jakarta, Dusseldorf, Geneva, Johannesburg, Caracas, Melbourne, Osaka, Prague, Santiago, Taipei, Houston
	5	Bangkok, Warsaw, Montreal, Beijing, Rome, Stockholm
	4	Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Miami, Minneapolis, Munich, Istanbul, Shanghai
emerging	3	Athens, Vienna, Dublin, Luxembourg, Lyon, Mumbai (Bombay), New Delhi, Rio de Janeiro, Tel Aviv, Philadelphia, Helsinki
	2	Abu Dhabi, Alma-Ata, Birmingham, Santa Fe de Bogota, Bratislava, Brisbane, Bucharest, Vancouver, The Hague, Detroit, Dubai, Cairo, Cologne, Kyiv, Cleveland, Lima, Lisbon, Manchester, Montevideo, Oslo, Rotterdam, Seattle, Ho Chi Minh City, Stuttgart
	1	Adelaide, Antwerp, Baltimore, Bangalore, Brasilia, Genoa, Glasgow, Guangzhou, Dresden, Calgary, Kansas City, Cape Town, Columbus, Leeds, Lille, Marseille, Richmond, Saint Petersburg, Tashkent, Tehran, Turin, Utrecht, Hanoi, Edinburgh

In territorial terms, world cities are unevenly distributed, exactly corresponding to the geography of the economically most developed and wealthy countries of the world. They form three main areas of concentration: Western European, North American and Asia-Pacific. For other regions of the world, the category of global cities is represented by only single centers: Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires - in South America, Johannesburg - in Africa, Sydney - in Australia and some others.

main feature Western European zone global cities - the longest history of urban development, during which the formation of cities - leaders in the regional and global economy and their constant rotation took place. At one time, Antwerp, Venice, Genoa and a number of other centers excelled. There is currently a particularly high competition for leadership in the region between the capitals of Great Britain and France, which are included in the highest category of world cities. At the same time, most experts prefer London, which took shape as a global center back in the 18th-19th centuries.

Over the long history of development in the region, a dense network of world cities has emerged, which are often characterized by a very narrow functional specialization. For example, Zurich stands out as one of the most important financial centers, Rotterdam - the main port of Europe. Together they form a kind of trans-European backbone, stretching from Dublin, through London, Paris, the cities of the Rhine Valley, to Milan and Rome. This area is well read on the map. In the 1990s, the second - the eastern ridge of cities in the territory began to form. Central Europe, consisting mainly of second generation centers (capitals).

North American zone of global cities is younger than Western Europe, but it is the largest and most deeply involved in the system of the world economy. It is based on a complex network national centers USA. Located along the contour of the country`, they form a kind of ring of global centers. Key positions among them are occupied by New York, Los Angeles and Chicago, which closely interact with global centers from other countries - Toronto, Mexico City and Caracas. Many American cities have great potential and in the future claim the status of global cities. These include Philadelphia, Detroit and a number of others.

Asia Pacific of global cities (the youngest in time of formation) is linear and is formed along the Tokyo-Singapore axis. It is typical, on the one hand, of the clearly dominant role of the capital of Japan, and on the other hand, the large number and high dynamics of growth of secondary world cities. These are the largest centers of rapidly developing new industrial countries- Bangkok, Singapore, Seoul, Manila. Over the past decade, the degree of competitiveness of the triumvirate of Chinese centers - Xianggang, Shanghai and Beijing - has noticeably increased.

In terms of the main parameters of life, each of the leading global centers - New York, London, Tokyo and Paris - is comparable, and often surpasses entire states.

Global cities in the system of urban settlement of the world

Global centers have significant demographic potential and form large agglomerations. The world's leading cities make up half of the list of the ten largest agglomerations in the world. Among the 55 world cities, only one center - Geneva - has a population below one million (Table 2). 3/5 of them are cities with a population of 1-5 million people. Despite the fact that at the beginning it was the concentration of human resources that played an important role in the promotion of individual centers, present stage a key role in maintaining leadership is already played by the factor of not so much the quantity as the quality of human resources. The expansion of the group of global cities through agglomerations from the countries of the semi-periphery and the periphery of the world economy is closely related to the initial accumulation of human capital, a key element of economic growth.

table 2

Ranking of global cities by population, 2005

World category cities	Rank	Population in agglomerations, million people					Total cities
World category cities	Rank	over 15	10-15	5-10	1-5	less than 1	Total cities
Leading	12	tokyo, New York		London, Paris			4
Leading	10		Los Angeles	Hong Kong, Chicago	Milan, Singapore, Frankfurt- on the main		6
Main	9				San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Zurich		4
	8	mexico city, Sao Paulo			Madrid, Brussels		4
	7			Moscow, Seoul			2
Minor	6		Jakarta, Osaka	Santiago	Amsterdam, Boston, Washington, Dallas, Dusseldorf, Caracas, Johannesburg, Melbourne, Prague, Taipei, Houston	Same- Neva	15
	5		Beijing	Bangkok	Warsaw, Montreal, Rome, Stockholm		6
	4	Buenos Aires, Istanbul, Manila, Shanghai		Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Budapest, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Kuala Lumpur, Miami, Minneapolis, Munich			14
Total cities	number	4	8	8	34	1	55
Total cities	%	7,3	14,5	14,5	61,9	1,8	100

Currently, the 20 leading and main global centers accumulate 176 million people, or 2.9% of the total and 5.9% of the world's urban population. Despite a significant slowdown in population growth over the past half century, this is 2.5 times more than in 1950. For 1950-1970. the number of inhabitants of the top twenty world cities increased by 52 million people, for 1970-1990. - by 38 million, and for 1990-2005. - only 16 million people. Almost 3/5 of the total population growth over the past 15 years has been in the five centers of developing countries - Sao Paulo, Mexico City, Bangkok, Hong Kong and Singapore. A significant part of world cities, such as Milan, Madrid, Brussels and even Seoul, at different times and for various reasons, have not only passed the peak of growth rates, but are also steadily losing population. The world's leading cities are part of the supporting framework of the planet's urban settlement, but fast-growing megacities of developing countries are becoming increasingly important in its completion.

But the main role of the world's cities is played not as centers of population concentration, but as global centers for the exchange of human resources. The annual volume of only international migration of each of the leading global cities is hundreds of thousands of people, that is, it is quite comparable with the scale of entire states and is growing rapidly. Global cities are the largest receiving centers for migration flows from all regions of the world. This is their fundamental difference from the megacities of developing countries, which serve primarily as starting points for international migration. In Greater London, immigration doubles emigration (200,000 versus 107,000 in 2002). The global nature of the connections of world cities is clearly illustrated by the example of New York, which annually receives about 100 thousand immigrants from 100 countries of the world.

World cities are the cores of not so much permanent as temporary international migration. Global centers serve as an important base for short-term official, business, scientific, representative and various other contacts. Significant contingents of people come here for training, contract work, exhibitions, visiting relatives, leisure and recreation. Miami and New York stand out in particular. The geography of city connections is extremely extensive, their foreland is the whole world. New York maintains contact with 209 different countries and territories. There is a certain division of labor between cities in servicing different areas, which is quite closely linked to their geographical location. For example, Miami oversees communications with Latin America, Los Angeles and San Francisco - with the countries of Asia and Oceania. For New York, Chicago and Washington, the European direction remains a priority, especially ties with the UK.

In modern conditions, the participation of the world's leading cities in the organization of the supporting frame of the planet's urban settlement is changing dramatically. They are increasingly giving way to the role of the core of the accumulation of a simple labor force to the fast-growing megacities of developing countries. At the same time, global centers lead the process of transcontinental exchange and management of human flows. Recently, they have acquired special significance in serving not so much permanent as temporary international migration of the population, including those for business purposes.

World cities in the geopolitical system of the world

World politics is done in world cities. The analysis of the location of the headquarters of various international organizations allows us to assess the role and strength of influence of various centers of the geopolitical system of the world. The latter are divided into two categories - international interstate (intergovernmental) organizations (IMO) and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs). The number of international organizations is constantly growing and already amounts to more than 13 thousand. The overwhelming majority of them are INGOs. MMOs are much less numerous, but have a much greater weight. Their activities are fully regulated by international law. Currently, there are about 300 such organizations, and the largest and most influential - less than 150.

The head offices of 5873 INGOs are located in 20 cities, and 13 cities from this list are European. The top ten centers include all the world's leading cities, but Brussels is the undisputed leader. There are 1,392 INGOs headquartered here, slightly less than London and Paris combined, which rank second and third. Such a triumvirate of centers is quite understandable. Each of these cities is traditionally considered a stronghold of freethinking, is the center of national and international socio-political movements and associations of the most diverse nature and direction, a favorite venue for international congresses, conferences and congresses. Against this background, the positions of New York and especially Tokyo are very modest. In the second ten geopolitical centers, cities of developing countries stand out as new growth points - Buenos Aires (110 INGO headquarters), Nairobi (100) and Mexico City (87).

In general, the geography of IMOs and INGOs largely coincides. Almost 80% of the head offices of the most influential IMOs are concentrated in world cities (Table 3). Outside the global centers, with rare exceptions, there are organizations of predominantly local and partly regional status. Among world cities proper, the location of IMO head offices is also characterized by significant unevenness. Seven key geopolitical centers - New York, Paris, London, Brussels, Geneva, Washington and Vienna - account for more than 2/3 of IMO head offices and 4/5 of global and global-regional associations.

Table 3

Distribution by world cities of IMO headquarters*, 2005

World cities	Number of cities		Number of IMO Headquarters
World cities	Total	including from headquarters apartments	global- nyh	globally regional	regional cash	locale- nyh
leading, including: London, New York, Paris, Tokyo	10	5	9 2 4 3 –	14 2 7 4 1	5 1 2 1 –	15 – 15 – –
main, including: Brussels	10	3	5	1	7	1
Minor, including: Geneva, Washington	35	14	23 11 5	6 3 2	8 2 –	6 3 –
emerging, including Vein	59	9	7	3	6	4
world cities Other cities Total:	114 – –	31} 42 73	44 4 48	24 4 28	26 11 37	26 28 54

* IMOs are divided into four conditional categories according to their importance and the number of members. The rank of global includes those that include more than a hundred member countries in all regions of the world, such as the UN and its specialized agencies such as UNESCO or the World Health Organization. Less representative IMOs are considered global-regional and regional, whose activities are limited to the boundaries of one region (for example, the CIS or the Community of Andean States), and local - with two or three participants or performing, for example, a UN observer mission in individual countries.

An outstanding global geopolitical center is New York - the location of the UN headquarters and a number of its major structural divisions. In terms of scale of activity, neither London, nor Paris, and even more so Tokyo, where only the UN University is located, can be compared with it. Nearly half of the most important MMOs are located in secondary world cities. Geneva, Washington, Vienna are almost 2.5 times larger than London, Paris and Tokyo in terms of the number of IMO headquarters.

It can be stated that the main geostrategic axis Europe - the United States has been preserved, the history of which goes back more than two hundred years, while the centers of the Asia-Pacific and other regions of the world still remain in the shadows. The North American region has a pronounced monocentric structure (with a large margin of New York), the European region is distinguished by polycentrism.

Global cities as control centers of the global economy

The role of global cities as manufacturing centers is determined by the scale of their GRP, and as centers that manage and control the global economy, by the level of concentration of the headquarters of the largest TNCs, key institutions of the international financial market, primarily the TNB, and, more recently, by the level of concentration of firms in them. advanced business services.

The economic potential of the world's leading cities is enormous. In terms of GRP, each of them is comparable to some countries. Only the top ten global cities account for over 10% of the world's GDP. The undisputed world leader is Greater Tokyo, whose GRP at PPP in 2005 amounted to $1.2 trillion. economic activity In Japan, the fact that only the three main centers of the Tokaido metropolis - Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka account for more than half of the country's GDP is also evidence. Greater New York is second in the ranking ($1.1 trillion), Greater Los Angeles is third, and Greater Chicago is fourth (Table 4). In total, the top thirty major manufacturing centers of the world include 16 US urban areas.

Table 4

The largest manufacturing agglomerations of the world, 2005

Agglomeration	GRP PPP, billion dollars
Tokyo	1191
New York	1133
Los Angeles	639
Chicago	460
Paris	460
London	452
Osaka-Kobe	341
mexico city	315
Philadelphia	312
Washington	299
A total of 10 agglomerations	5142

The largest urban agglomerations in the United States produce about 85% of all country's GDP. The figures for European cities are much more modest. Among them, the capital regions of France ($460 billion) and Great Britain ($452 billion) have the largest economic potential. Following the two leading cities in Europe, the agglomerations of Spain - Madrid (166 billion dollars) and Barcelona (140), as well as Italy - Rome (123) and Milan (115) follow by a wide margin. Moscow has 161 billion dollars and 25th place.

Grades and ratings economic power and the governing role of world cities are closely related to the location of the headquarters of the largest TNCs. No matter how the composition of the largest TNCs changes, the concentration of their headquarters in global centers remains fairly stable. It is traditionally led by four cities - Tokyo, New York, London and Paris. Together, they account for more than 1/4 of all the headquarters of the largest TNCs in the world. At the same time, Tokyo and New York are the first to act.

The capital of Japan hosts over 60 headquarters of TNCs from the 500 largest corporations in the world and 9 of the 12 largest industrial and financial groups of the country: Mitsubishi, Hitachi, Nippon Steel, Nissan, Fuji, Toshiba, Daiichi, Honda and Sony. Each of them has enormous economic potential and opportunities. It is no coincidence that Tokyo is considered the leading center for managing the entire industry of the world. No less representative is the list of TNCs based in New York and its environs. Here are the headquarters of corporations that are included in the top ten industry and composite ratings of the largest TNCs in the world. In particular, these include: a developer and manufacturer of computer hardware and software company IBM(Armonk), giant of the global tobacco industry Philip Maurice, oil company Texas(White Plains) and a number of others.

Recently, new centers have joined the established hierarchy of global cities - the governing bodies of the world economy. Most good example in this regard, Seoul, where, as a result of rapid economic development with the participation of foreign capital, there is an active formation of national and transnational business structures. Together with national economy the positions of other young centers are also strengthening - Singapore, Shanghai, Beijing, Xianggang, Sao Paulo, etc. The rapid growth of the international significance of these cities and their attractiveness for foreign investors demonstrates the increase in the number of regional headquarters and representative offices of TNCs. So, in Hong Kong only for 1991-2003. their number more than quadrupled (from 648 to 2520). At the same time, companies of two key figures in the world economy - the USA and Japan.

The most powerful tool of modern business is free capital. It is no coincidence that a global city is primarily positioned as a global financial center, which is understood as a geographical center financial transactions and implementing banks, financial companies, stock exchanges and other institutions. The geography of financial and world centers coincides. A global city is inconceivable without a developed financial sector. This sector not only plays a large independent role in the context of the city's position on global financial markets, but in many respects it is called upon to ensure the progress of all sectors of its economy. In addition, it has a strong stimulating effect on the development of a range of both ancillary and new activities, including insurance, security, computer services, software, training, consulting and many other services.

Stock exchanges are of particular importance in world cities as places of direct contacts of the highest level. Stock exchanges determine the functioning of the entire global economy, and commodity exchanges only manage the markets for raw materials.

Financial system world has a fairly high level of territorial concentration, managed and controlled by a limited number of centers. For example, in the total capital, the share of 25 of the 1000 leading banks increased over 1995-2004. from 31 to 37%. Number of largest centers stock trading ordinary securities does not exceed 25, and the leading financial centers identified by a set of indicators - 19. They are clearly localized in three regions - Western European (Amsterdam, Brussels, Copenhagen, London, Milan, Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Zurich), North American (Montreal , New York, Toronto, Chicago) and Asia-Pacific (Osaka, Seoul, Sydney, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taipei, Tokyo).

Among global cities, London stands out as the main financial center of the world. It currently accounts for 70% of the world's international bond trade, 32% of the world's foreign exchange market(more than Tokyo, New York and Frankfurt am Main combined), about 50% of the world's trading in shares of foreign companies. London leads in terms of international deposit and credit operations, and among European stock markets services - on the turnover of securities (followed by Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Zurich). A huge number of financial institutions are concentrated in London, including representative offices of 565 foreign structures serving world trade and capital migration. Here are the headquarters of several international financial institutions in particular the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

New York is the world's largest center for trading stocks, gold futures, in terms of international banking operations. More than 3,000 companies operate on the New York Stock Exchange, and trading volumes are rapidly growing, which in 1980-2004 increased from 398 billion to 20 trillion dollars. But even more, New York strengthened its position as a financial center with the organization of trading on the NASDAQ electronic exchange. Over the past decade, trading volumes on it have grown from $452 billion to $20.4 trillion. More than 350 of the 540 foreign bank offices located in the United States are located in the city; six of the ten largest US banks are based, together holding 85% foreign deposits, a number of authoritative rating agencies. Here is the headquarters of the recognized flagship of global finance - the company Citigroup.

Tokyo ranks third in the world in currency and securities trading. The Tokyo Stock Exchange is also the third in the world in terms of capitalization and the fourth in terms of the total value of registered bonds. Since 1999, the stock exchange has a section for the placement and trading of shares of high-tech companies of the "new economy" - an analogue of the NASDAQ system in the United States. More than 4/5 of the head offices of national banks are located in the capital of Japan, about 80 foreign banks have official representative offices, and 8 of the 50 largest banks in the world are headquartered. Three of them - Mizuho, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo are in the top ten in the world. However, this financial center is going through hard times. It is experiencing serious competition from Singapore and Hong Kong, which successfully intercept some of the functions. Recently, some of the trade has been taken over by them. foreign exchange and futures. Hong Kong is considered the second largest financial center in Asia. Its important feature is the speculative orientation of the operations performed. Hong Kong's main competitor is Singapore, which has a favorable geographical position on the paths of regional and world trade. Practicing preferential tax regime, Singapore is the only financial center among third world countries with a complete set of all components (gold market, foreign exchange market, bank loans market and stock values).

Possessing enormous economic potential, world cities act as key focuses not only of the national territory, but of the entire world economy, which, through the network structures of TNCs and TNBs, are able to control the entire global economy. The existing composition of such centers is relatively narrow and conservative, although recently there has been a tendency to expand the composition and geography at the expense of new, dynamically growing cities.

World cities as global
service and communication centers

The performance of important international economic and political functions by global cities gives an additional impetus to the development of both traditional specialization sectors - education, science, culture, etc., and relatively new types of activity. The fastest growing professional business services sector in world cities includes accounting, insurance, auditing, legal services, advertising business, consulting, marketing and much more. Compliance of these types of activities with the highest world standards affects the image and international rating of the city and serves as a kind of pass for getting into the elite of global centers.

Specialized institutions for the training of highly qualified personnel, in particular top managers for TNCs, are completely localized in world cities. In Europe, for example, there are only two centers of the highest category for personnel services - in London and Frankfurt am Main. In the world in the late 1990s, there were about a dozen key centers in the field of legal, accounting services and advertising business, among which New York, London, Paris and Tokyo traditionally dominated.

World cities are centers of production and distribution of information, the largest centers of mass communication and international information traffic, serve as a location for company headquarters, specializing in the field of telecommunication services, information systems and technologies, as well as leading media concerns. The results of the analysis of the location of the headquarters and representative offices of 33 leading global media industry firms are curious. These include giant companies such as Vivendi Universal(headquartered in Paris, 275 thousand employees), AOL Time Warner(New York, 82 thousand), Walt Disney(Los Angeles, 120 thousand), VIACOM(New York, 134 thousand) and others. More than 30% (835 out of 2766) of all divisions of global media industry firms are located in only seven cities - New York, London, Paris, Los Angeles, Munich, Berlin and Amsterdam.

In ensuring the global activity of cities, the transport function is important, especially air traffic. All global centers have airports and have developed into the largest air transport hubs, each of which annually serves tens of millions of passengers and millions of tons of cargo to hundreds of destinations.

The high concentration of international functions of the largest agglomerations indicates the formation of a global system of oligopolises (from the Greek. oligos- few; polis- city), which refers to the dominance of a relatively small number of the largest cities in the world (see map).

Model of the oligopolistic system of global centers
(by D. Gimeno)

The oligopolistic system embodies the main vector of the development of the world economy and the prospects for the reorganization of the global economy. economic structure. It is no coincidence that each emerging market acquires a city of international type, their examples are Sao Paulo, Caracas, Johannesburg, Mexico City, Bangkok, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Jakarta. The absence of such centers deprives the country of the potential for economic dynamism associated with the corporate services sector top level, with a knowledge economy and with access to global financial, innovation and information flows. A nation or a region finds itself isolated, aloof from the economic and intellectual world movement. On the contrary, connecting to the system of oligopolises opens up new opportunities for regions to act as powerful economic agents in the global space.

However, not every city is able to get into the elite club of global centers; the process of expanding the geography of world cities is fraught with many conflict situations. The competition between oligopolises for higher positions in the prestigious rating of significance is growing, and there is a clear opposition of leading cities to the emergence of new centers of growth claiming part of their functions. In addition, the policy of large cities is undergoing cardinal changes, aimed primarily at solving the problem of entering the club of the multipolar global metro network and achieving club effects, the tasks of creating a favorable local, regional environment are relegated to the background. At the same time, the negative consequences for the internal development of cities, a kind of payment for entering the new global system, are becoming clearer. This is expressed, in particular, in the standardization of urban development, social polarization, urban fragmentation, etc. However, despite the acutely problematic nature, the main vector of development is clearly indicated - this is the path to the formation of transnational urban systems.

Popov D. G., Fokina V. V.

The role of "global cities" in the modern system of international relations

Popov Dmitry Gennadievich

St. Petersburg Polytechnic University Associate Professor of the Department of Socio-Political Technologies Ph.D. [email protected]

Fokina Veronika Viktorovna

St. Petersburg Polytechnic University Associate Professor of the Department of Socio-Political Technologies [email protected].ru

The article discusses the role of "global cities" as a special space of international relations, geo-economic and geo-cultural processes in the modern world, one of the distinguishing features of which is an active role in the formation and socialization of the ruling elites.

KEYWORDS

global cities, international relations, geoeconomics, geoculture, globalization, elites

Popov D. G., Fokina V. V. The Role of "Global Cities" in the Modern System of International Relations

Popov Dmitry Gennadievich

Saint-Petersburg Polytechnical university (Saint-Petersburg, Russian Federation) Associate Professor of the Chair of Social and Political Technologies PhD in Philosophy, associate Professor [email protected]

Fokina Veronica Viktorovna

Saint-Petersburg Polytechnical university (Saint-Petersburg, Russian federation) associate Professor of the Chair of Social and Political technologies PhD in Political Science, associate Professor [email protected].ru

This work is a review of global cities" role as the specific space of international relations, geo-economical and geocultural processes in the modern world.

global cities, international relations, geo-economics, geoculture, globalization, elite

The processes of global transformation of the world political and economic system in the conditions of the modern financial and value crisis affect all participants in international relations. State actors in world politics compete for the recognition of their principles, values and geopolitical ideas as dominant for participants in global and regional interaction.

At the same time, the modern system of international relations, international law and international organizations led by the UN do not allow to provide

full military and political control to the states and institutions of the "center" about

over the states and non-state participants of the "periphery". Direct Con-^

troll is replaced by the practices of "soft" and "smart" power, as well as the concepts of the elite ^

governance based on cooperation, consensus and regional integration. EJ

In the context of increasing competition for tangible and intangible

resources, the ruling elites are faced with the acute problem of leadership in

setting the interests of the region at the level of relations center - regions, region - about

regions, region - global world. A special environment for the formation of political, o

economic and social elites in the regions have now become global<

cities. In this regard, it seems interesting to analyze the role of "global cities" (global cities) in the system of global governance and the formation of a global elite. 2

A global city (the terms "world city" and alpha city are also used) is a city that is considered an important element of the global economic system. The term ^ "global city" refers to an urbanized region that has a global impact based on the following directions.

1. The city acts as a center for improving the quality of territorial administration, a point of growth for the country and the region, acting in the international arena in the form of a "gateway" to the global world.

2. The city acts as an important element of the regional and world economic network structure, increasing the competitiveness of the national and regional economies.

3. The city has a significant impact not only on the regions of its location, but also on the macro-regions of the planet, on civilization as a whole, since the modern concept of Western civilization was based on the urban network of the Middle Ages.

4. In the modern world, cities act as regional communication centers, centers of prestigious consumption and elite interaction at the global, regional and local (territorial) level.

5. Modern global cities are the centers of knowledge reproduction and training of new specialists due to the developed and highly mobile educational environment.

A global city is a post-industrial center that is maximally integrated into the global economy. Among the main criteria of a global city, in our opinion, the following should be highlighted.

1. The level of business activity - the intensity of communication interaction between the elites, the possibility of forming interest groups and pressure groups based on sectoral and regional interests. The number of industry and economic conferences that take place in the city and directly affect the level of requirements for the preparation and knowledge of regional elites, and issues of regional and global leadership.

2. Human capital - the number of scientific and educational clusters, higher educational institutions that are among the leading "knowledge centers" of the world; the number of foreign students, graduate students studying at universities; the number of research centers and world-class scientific schools.

3. Information capital - the volume of international news in the leading local media; information and communication infrastructure, including the Internet, the number of media outlets of global importance based in a given city.

4. Cultural capital - a quantitative and qualitative indicator of tourist attractiveness; museum and exhibition sites, as well as other world-class cultural institutions; participation in the international Olympic movement

about zheniya, holding special events in the field of sports and special events in the field of culture and arts.

^ 5. Political weight - the degree of participation and importance of the city in international E3 political activity, for example, the number of foreign embassies, consulates, representative offices of international organizations; the level of international conferences held in the city; the number of centers for political and international studies.

o 6. Innovation potential - the number of borrowed practices of the city of other< гими городами и регионами, количество прорывных открытий, технологий, патентов, доказавших свою эффективность на международном уровне. х 7. Инвестиционный капитал - объем инвестиций, количество офисов иностранных компаний, число заключенных контрактов и договоров при участии иностранно-н- го капитала.

^ Cities that meet the above criteria are closed in a single network with geopolitical centers, the belt of cities of the "center". It is in them that the vast majority of the headquarters of intergovernmental, as well as non-governmental organizations are concentrated. Based on the criteria for nominees for the title of global cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg are suitable for this role in the Russian Federation.

The problem of the formation of new power groups in the context of globalization has led to a rethinking of the role of global cities as a space not only for short-term representative, business, scientific and other elite contacts, but also a basis for training representatives of supranational elite groups and a basis for integration processes. The new global elites are persons occupying the most significant positions in the most important global institutions, who make strategic decisions regarding the functioning of individual regions, using the resources provided by global cities: social, economic, political, administrative, geographical, informational, which means their influence on the most important processes of our time.

It should be taken into account that the criterion for the effectiveness of modern regional integration formations is considered to be qualitative and quantitative indicators of activity within the framework of economic, social, legal, administrative-power and cultural-information integration institutions of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the centers and symbols of such regional interaction are the "nodes - "global cities". We should also not forget about "regions - the gateway to the global world", which, in the first place, in our opinion, can mean the largest urban agglomerations of developing countries. According to one of the leading experts in this field, N.A. Sluka, “global cities have become the centers of the new world community. Agglomerations endowed with colossal financial, managerial, informational and political functions. No country in the world can be among the leaders if it does not have at least one global city.

A special role is played by global cities for the formation of ruling elites, the functioning of TNCs, they concentrate management, analysis, exchange and access to economic, natural, informational, labor and political resources. According to the Global-5001 list, in aggregate they account for more than a quarter of all the headquarters of transnational corporations (TNCs) from among the 500 largest in the world, and given the role of regional offices, lobbying and subsidiaries, it is global cities that are the main space for the life of corporations and elites. .

1 fortune. Global 500 [Electronic resource]. URL: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/

Global cities have a special geocultural role in the modern world. o As part of the global communication network, global cities act as centers or conductors of "zones of cultural prestige" of leading economic, political, and cultural actors. Representatives of the countries of the third E^ world strive for them in search of a better life and representatives of the first world in order to obtain ^ profit, education and recognition. Global cities have scientific and educational centers closed in a single system of academic mobility.

Global cities are becoming benchmarks for consumption, quality of life< и идентификации. В них происходит научно-культурное развитие, взаимодействие ^ науки, бизнеса и государства, а также формирование информационной повест- х ки глобального человечества. «Сегодня города стали местом столкновения пред- 2 ставителей разных социальных слоев, людей с разным происхождением, и нет н-четких правил, по которым они должны взаимодействовать. Это пространство ^ неясности, открытое для интерпретации. Это и было важным свойством фрон- щ тиров тогда, когда они находились на окраинах империй. А сегодня это свойство больших городов. Такое пространство трудно контролировать, но оно заставляет людей задуматься о том, кто они есть, по каким правилам они хотят существовать» .

No less interesting is the fact that global cities, by many criteria, correspond to the economic and regional concepts of regions-locomotives and regions-states. With direct links to the global economy and populations with special qualities, global cities, under the pressure of transnational business standards, are increasingly losing their national cultural identity and ties with surrounding territories. They are becoming centers of a new global culture, sharing common economic and consumer interests from New York to Shanghai.

Global cities also serve as a channel for the dissemination of legal codes, alphabets, religions, citizens' demands, allied relations, etc., thus becoming the core and driving force of history, which largely determines the territorial division and structure of the modern world.

In modern international relations, not only national states, but also “global cities” and “new regions”, supranational elites, international organizations, TNCs, network financial and production groups and coalitions, etc. can act as subjects of geo-economic interaction. and the geostrategic situation in the modern world is the presence of strong participants in regional and global processes competing for various resources - the largest city-regions of the modern world with their globalized elites. Forming supranational networks and acting as centers of geocultural and geoeconomic spaces and "showcases", global cities and their representatives promote currently universal values in the core regions and in peripheral territories.

Literature

1. Global city: theory and reality / ed. N. A. Slooky. M. : Avanglion, 2007. 243 p.

2. Sassen S. No one can control the city [Electronic resource] // Ogonyok. No. 25(5285). 07/01/2013 // Kommersant URL: http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2218969/print

3. Sergeev V. Gates to the global world [Electronic resource] // Russian Archipelago. URL: // http://www.archipelag.ru/geoeconomics/global/megatrend/gates/

4. Sluka N. Global cities [Electronic resource] // Expert online // URL: http://expert. ru/expert/2008/15/globalnue_goroda/

o 5. Collns R. Civilizations as Zones of Prestige and Social Contact // International Sociology. 2002. H Vol. 16(3).

"6. Sassen S. The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton U.P., 2001.

g 1. The Global City: The Theory and Reality / ed. by N.A. Sluki. m M. : Avanglion. 2007. 243a

§ 2. Sassen S. Nobody can control the city // Ogonek. No. 25(5285). 07/01/2013 // KoMMepcaHT.ru: URL: http://www.kommersant.

i=ru/doc/2218969/print

x 3. Sergeev V. Gateways to the Global World // .

URL: http://www.archipelag.ru/geoeconomics/global/megatrend/gates/ ¡E 4. Sluka N. The Global Cities . URL: http://expert.ru/^ expert/2008/15/globalnue_goroda/

o 5. Collns R. Civilizations as Zones of Prestige and Social Contact // International Sociology. 2002 Vol. 16(3).

6. Sassen S. The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton U.P., 2001.

Introduction.
Cities are a great creation of the mind and human hands. They play a decisive role in the territorial organization of society. They serve as a mirror of their countries and regions. Cities - leaders are called the spiritual workshops of mankind and the engines of progress.
But the city is also an exceptionally contradictory form of human settlement. Being a means of solving many problems of social development, they are also the source and arena of their most acute manifestation.
The improvement of cities as a living environment and places of concentration of various activities, the rational organization of urban networks in accordance with the geographical, cultural, historical, socio-economic characteristics of the territory is an important task in all countries of the world.
The theme of my term paper is “The concept of world cities”. The following indicators stand out as criteria for the selection of world cities: 1. population, 2. scale of development of financial activity, 3. number of headquarters of multinational companies, 4. role in international politics (including the location of the governing bodies of large international organizations), 5. high growth rates of the business services sector, 6. the size of industrial production, 7. the scale and level of development of transport. According to these indicators, 10-15 largest cities of the world, incl. New York, London, Paris, Tokyo.
The purpose of the work is to reveal the trends in the development of world cities. In my work, I indicated the world cities of ancient times, and also analyzed and compared world cities according to various criteria, named the largest megacities of our time and tried to make a forecast for the development of world cities in the future. For this I
· considered issues related to the historical stages of urban development;
· described the evolution of the concepts of world cities of various geoban scientists;
· outlined a number of the largest agglomerations and megacities of the modern world;
The relevance of this topic is due to the high public need for scientific knowledge, the need to reveal the essence of the defining indicators in the development of world cities.
The theoretical basis of the course work was made up of works devoted to the evolution and functioning of world cities, the study of the city as a social
organism, settlement and planning structure of large cities of agglomerations, typology and classification of urban settlements, modern urbanization, as well as other works on economic geography related to the topic of work.

CHAPTER 1.
City and geography .

§ 1 Geographical approach to the study of cities.

The city is a special, incomparable creation of the mind and human hands. It is a living environment for an ever-increasing number of people and a place of concentration of various, becoming more and more diverse types of activities. The name of the engines of progress was assigned to the cities. The new is born in them and spreads out of them. These are creative laboratories, spiritual workshops of humanity..
A huge historical and cultural heritage has been concentrated in the cities. They keep masterpieces of architecture, the historical memory of countries and peoples, is a stone chronicle of mankind. And in themselves, as the most complex creation of the mind and human hands, the labor of many generations, they are of the greatest value. The special significance of cities lies in the fact that they create the conditions for the movement of mankind forward. They have arsenals of information, connect different areas of activity, at the intersection of which points of growth arise in culture, science, technology, and politics. They have a special atmosphere of communication, a multi-contact environment. Being places of concentration of many problems of society, cities at the same time are also a means of solving them.
The study of cities is necessary in order to make them more convenient for people's lives, i.e. provide them with the best conditions for the performance of exceptionally important duties. It has been rightly noted that the more complex cities become, the more complicated knowledge about them becomes. But it is possible to create a geographical doctrine of the city.
Geographical ideas and concepts are necessary to reveal the fundamental properties of the city. Geographic approaches are characterized by complexity, corresponding to the nature of this complex object. Geography considers the city at different territorial levels, which opens the way to the study of the city as a system within a system of cities. Geography suggests considering it as an ecosystem, which will allow us to study the environmental problems of the modern world.
Social geography helps to understand the city as a kind of "demographic cauldron" in which very complex social and demographic processes take place. As an environment, as a social organism, it significantly influences the demographic behavior of people, their social stratification. It not only creates favorable conditions for the dawn of the human personality, but also causes phenomena of social pathology. Centers of high culture and nests of crime coexist in the city.
Geography reveals the features of the geographical position of the city - this specific resource, perhaps the most important for its development. patronize. A change in the city causes a response in the surrounding area - a kind of "spatial resonance".
The geographical doctrine of the city is constructive. And it is no coincidence that there is a constant convergence of geography with urban planning and regional planning. Without revealing the fundamental foundations of cities and their systems, it is impossible to regulate their growth and development.
But the city, as an object of study, is also very important for geography, which finds application in it for all its pre-evening sciences and can realize its potential as an integrating science by studying the city. Being a set of enterprises and devices that have a complex impact on the environment, the city not only becomes an area with a tense ecological situation, but also a factor that changes, sometimes very dramatically, a similar situation within a vast area. Consideration of the problems of landscape sustainability, which modern geography is engaged in, is impossible without the teaching of the city, in which nature is subjected to a natural severe test of strength.
It is logical to turn to the city when working out such an important topic for economic geography as the geographical division of labor, since cities are both a result and an equally significant factor in the division of labor. The city is not only an economic center, a center of industry and a place of production of spiritual values. First of all, these are the people who inhabit the city, constituting a special territorial community. The activity and life of many generations of people have created a certain environment in the city, characterized by a specific atmosphere, traditions, everything that is called the spirit of the city.
The versatility of the city, its complex functional structure make it possible to use examples of different cities - centers of a particular activity when characterizing industries, modes of transport, science, art, education.
The theme of the city is needed not only to strengthen intra-geographic ties: between economic and social geography, between the geography of society and the geography of nature, the geography of industries and the geography of regions. It should be used to strengthen the contacts of geography as an academic subject with history, literature, and biology.
Historical and geographical analysis of the formation of a network of cities, their role as strongholds in securing the state territory links geography and history. The city is a multi-layered formation that bears the imprint of different eras. Its buildings, streets and squares are witnesses of significant historical events. The founding of the city is the realization of the economic and military-strategic aspirations of the state at a particular historical stage.
In literature, the theme of the city occupies a large place. Many Russian writers studied the city and the life of its inhabitants very carefully. The method of comparative characteristics of cities was widely used. Cities became places not only for creativity, but also for literary action. The study of the literary biography of cities, thanks to the powers of observation and the gift of words of writers, allows us to more fully imagine the places of the city in the country, its characteristic features and originality.

№№2
The evolution of the concept of world cities.
The development of the world's major cities has always been in the field of view of specialists in various fields of knowledge. Historical epochs and formations have changed, the territorial organization and priorities of economic development have been transformed, but large cities have always been at the forefront of progress, and interest in them has never faded. Recently, among the variety of types of cities, the formation of their special category of world or global cities has attracted increased attention of the broad scientific community.
Initially, the concept of a world city in the specialized literature was used to designate cities of special cultural and religious significance such as Rome or Paris, as well as for the capitals of former empires, such as London, Paris, Vienna, Madrid. Over time, the understanding and interpretation of the phenomenon undergo dramatic changes. The modern theory of world cities proceeds primarily from the special participation of a number of centers in the architecture of the global socio-political situation and the world economy. Such centers are distinguished both by the size of the population, the status of the capitals of the largest countries, and by the range of activities and the degree of political influence and economic power. They are the location of the key individuals, institutions and organizations that govern, manipulate, dictate and determine the formation and reproduction of capitalism throughout the world. These cities are the command and control centers of the global economic system. Such a disproportionate and exceptional importance of individual agglomerations allows us to speak about their dominant positions in the urban hierarchy of the planet.
There are many difficulties in the way of exploring world cities. Some of them are due to the dynamic development and complication of the geopolitical and geo-economic space of the world and the rapid transformation processes in cities, the other part is closely related to certain weaknesses in international statistics and the raw methodological basis of the study. The authors use a variety of assessments and approaches to identify and study world cities. One of the direct consequences of this situation is the formation in geoeconomics of a fairly wide range, on the one hand, of the interpretation of the level of significance of large cities, and on the other, of the terms used to refer to the phenomenon. In the specialized literature, there is a high occurrence of such names as "world center", "information city", "reflexive city", "cosmopolis", "metropolis", "global urban region". Be that as it may, the dynamics of the number of thematic publications clearly indicates that the intensity of the study of global cities is increasing. To date, a number of scientific schools have been formed in different countries of the world to study this phenomenon.

Chapter 1. World economy and international economic relations: main features and features

1.1. International economic relations
One of the distinguishing features of the world economy in the second half of the 20th century is the intensive development of international economic relations (IER). There is an expansion and deepening of economic relations by countries, groups of countries, economic groupings, individual firms and organizations. The mechanism for implementing the IER is being improved and rebuilt. These processes are manifested by the deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of financial and economic relations, the globalization of the world economy, the increase in the openness of national economies, their complementarity and convergence, the development and strengthening of regional international structures.
It is characteristic that all these processes of interaction, rapprochement, cooperation are of a contradictory dialectical nature.
The dialectic of the IEO is that the desire for economic independence, the strengthening of the national economies of individual countries, ultimately leads to the general internationalization of the world economy, the openness of national economies, and the deepening of the international division of labor.
International economic relations include the study of two major components: the actual international economic relations and their mechanism. implementation.
International economic relations include a multi-level complex of economic relations between individual countries, their regional associations and entities, as well as individual enterprises (transnational, multinational) corporations in the world economy. International economic relations as a science do not study the economy of foreign countries, but the features of their economic relations. Moreover, not any economic relations, but only the most frequently repeated, typical, characteristic, defining relations.
The mechanism of international economic relations includes legal norms and instruments for their implementation (international economic treaties, agreements, "codes", charters, etc.), the relevant activities of international economic organizations aimed at achieving the goals of developing international economic relations.
The structure of international economic relations includes the following forms:
1. International trade in goods and. services.
2. International movement of capital.
3. International labor migration.
4. International technology exchange.
5. International monetary and financial and credit relations.
6. International economic integration.

No. No. 2. MEO forms

2.1. International trade in the system of international economic relations

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. According to some estimates, trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations. Modern international economic relations, characterized by the active development of world trade, bring a lot of new and specific to the process of development of national economies.
For any country, the role of foreign trade can hardly be overestimated. According to the definition of J. Sachs, “the economic success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet managed to create a healthy economy by isolating itself from the world economic system.”
International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.
Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to research by the World Trade Organization, for every 10% growth in world production, there is 16%; increase in the volume of world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.
The term "foreign trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.
Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided, according to commodity specialization, into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.
International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It means, for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of the countries of any continent, region, for example, the countries of Eastern Europe, etc. Sooner or later, all states faced the dilemma of choosing a foreign trade national policy. There have been heated discussions on this subject for centuries.

«»2The reasons for the international movement of capital and its main forms
The international movement of capital, its active migration between countries is the most important component and form of modern international economic relations.
The export of capital broke the monopoly of the export of goods in an era of in-depth development of the world economy. Complementing and mediating the export of goods, it becomes decisive in the system of international economic relations. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in the 1980s (since 1983), the average annual growth rate of direct investment (DI) was approximately 34%, i.e. almost 4 times the rate of increase in world trade.
The movement of capital is essentially different from the movement of goods. Foreign trade, as a rule, is reduced to the exchange of goods as use values. The export of capital (foreign investment) is the process of withdrawing part of the capital from the national circulation in a given country and moving it in commodity or monetary form into the production process and circulation of another country. Initially, the export of capital was characteristic of a small number of industrialized countries that exported capital to the periphery of the world economy. The development of the world economy has significantly expanded the scope of this process: the export of capital becomes a function of any successfully, dynamically developing economy. The capital is exported by the leading industrialized countries, and by the middle developed countries and by the developing ones, in particular, by the newly industrialized countries.
What are the reasons for the export of capital?
The main reason and prerequisite for the export of capital is the relative excess of capital in a given country, its overaccumulation. In order to obtain entrepreneurial profit or interest, it is transferred abroad. Characteristically, the export of capital can also be carried out with a shortage of capital for domestic investment.
By the 1990s, huge ones had formed in the world; masses of reserve capital seeking profitable employment. Insurance companies, pension funds, trust, investment and other funds accumulate these funds. Only in the US their assets exceeded in 1995. 8 trillion. Doll.
Since the second half of the 20th century, the export of capital has been continuously growing. The export of capital outstrips both merchandise exports and the gross domestic product of industrialized countries in terms of growth. Against the background of a sharp increase in the scale of the export of capital, its international migration is intensifying.
International migration of capital is the counter movement of capital between countries; bringing their owners a corresponding income. Many countries are both importers and exporters of capital: there are so-called cross-investments.
The most important reasons for the export of capital for the sake of greater profits are:
1. The discrepancy between the demand for capital and its supply in various parts of the world economy.
2. The emergence of the possibility of developing local commodity markets. At the same time, capital “is exported in order to pave the way for the export of goods, to stimulate demand for their own products. For these purposes, not only existing markets are being developed, but new ones are being created.
3. Availability in countries where capital is exported, cheaper raw materials and labor. So, for example, a German worker in the manufacturing industry "costs" 4 times more than a Taiwanese, 9 times more than a Brazilian or Mexican, and 54 times more than a Russian.
4. Stable political1 environment and generally favorable investment climate in the host country, preferential investment regimes in special (free) economic zones.
5. Lower environmental standards in the host country than in the capital donor country.
6. The desire to penetrate in a roundabout way into the markets of "third countries" that have established high tariff or non-tariff restrictions on the products of one or another international corporation. For example, Israel and South Korea have banned car imports from Japan. However, such a ban does not apply to the import of cars manufactured by subsidiaries of Japanese firms operating in the United States.
In practice, the need to invest is determined by a set of reasons that include all the components of the investment climate, as well as the principle of comparative advantage of individual markets.
Factors facilitating and stimulating the export of capital:
1. The growing interconnection and interconnection of national economies, which are the driving force that activates the export of capital. The internationalization of production has a huge impact on the international movement of capital, contributing to its acceleration. Export of capital; especially in the form of direct investment, is the main factor contributing to the transformation of production into international and the creation of so-called international products. International products are products sold on the global international market. It is unified and is implemented regardless of geographical, national or other features (cars, aircraft, radio electronics, computers, etc.).
2. International industrial cooperation, investments of transnational corporations in subsidiaries. Thus, separate legally independent enterprises from different countries within the framework of one international corporation establish close cooperation in the field of industry, technology, and detailed specialization. The export of capital provides these links.
3. The economic policy of industrialized countries, aimed at attracting significant amounts of capital to maintain economic growth, employment levels, and the development of advanced industries.
4. The economic behavior of developing countries seeking to use foreign capital to give a significant impetus to their economic development, to break out of the "vicious circle of poverty."
5. Important stimulators are international financial organizations that direct and regulate the flow of capital.
6. International agreements on the avoidance of double taxation of income and capital between countries contribute to the development of trade, scientific and technical cooperation, and attraction of investments.

The influence of the captain's international movement on the world economy and its consequences for countries - exporters and importers of capital
The process of internationalization of capital markets, which was activated in the early 1970s and is gaining momentum, is manifested in the ever-increasing volumes of capital flows between the states of a market economy. This is evidenced by the general growth of direct and portfolio investments, the increase in the volume of long-term and short-term loans, the growth in the scale of operations in the eurocurrency market, etc.
International capital movement, occupying a leading place in international economic relations, has a huge impact on the world economy:
1. Contributes to the growth of the global economy. Capital crosses borders in search of favorable areas for its application and growth on a global scale. The influx of foreign investment for most recipient countries helps to solve the problem of lack of productive capital, increases investment capacity, and accelerates economic growth.
2. Deepens the international division of labor and international cooperation.
The export of capital is one of the most important conditions for the formation and development of the international division of labor. The mutual penetration of capital between countries strengthens economic ties and cooperation between them, contributes to the deepening of international specialization and cooperation of production.
3. Increases the volume of mutual trade between countries; including intermediate products, between branches of international corporations, stimulating the development of world trade.
Playing a stimulating role in the development of the world economy, the international movement of capital causes various consequences for the countries of exporters and importers of capital.
The implications for capital-exporting countries include:
¦ the export of capital abroad without adequate attraction of foreign investment leads to a slowdown in the economic development of the exporting countries;
¦ the export of capital adversely affects the level of employment in the exporting country;
¦ the movement of capital abroad adversely affects the country's balance of payments.
For countries that import capital, the positive consequences can be the following:
¦ regulated import of capital contributes to the economic growth of the country - the recipient of capital;
¦ attracted capital creates new jobs;
¦ foreign capital brings new technologies, effective management, helps to accelerate scientific and technological progress in the country;
¦ the inflow of capital contributes to the improvement of the balance of payments of the recipient country.
In turn, there are also negative consequences of attracting other foreign capital:
¦ the influx of foreign capital, "crushing" local capital, or taking advantage of its inaction, ousts it from profitable industries. As a result, under certain conditions, this can lead to a one-sided development of the country and a threat to its economic security;
etc.................

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