Eastern Europe as a historical and geographical region includes: Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, countries formed as a result of the collapse of the former Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia), Albania, Latvia, Lithuania , Estonia.
There is also an opinion that the countries of this region should be attributed either to the Central or to Central Europe, since it is more correct to call Eastern Europe Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova and the European part of Russia.
But the name "Eastern Europe" has stuck with the countries of this region and is recognized throughout the world.
Geographical position. Natural resources
The countries of Eastern Europe represent a single natural-territorial array stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. The region and adjacent countries are based on the ancient Precambrian platform, covered by a cover of sedimentary rocks, as well as the area of Alpine folding.
An important feature of all the countries of the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS.
The countries of Eastern Europe differ from each other in geographic location, configuration, size of territory, and richness in natural resources.
From the reserves of natural resources stand out: coal (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas (Romania), iron ore (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Slovakia), bauxite (Hungary), chromite (Albania).
In general, it must be said that the region is experiencing a shortage of resources, and in addition, it is a vivid example of an "incomplete" set of minerals. So, in Poland there are large reserves of coal, copper ores, sulfur, but almost no oil, gas, iron ore. In Bulgaria, on the contrary, there is no coal, although there are significant reserves of lignite, copper ores, and polymetals.
Population
The population of the region is about 130 million people, but demographic situation, which is not easy in all of Europe, is the most alarming in Eastern Europe. Despite the active demographic policy pursued for several decades, natural increase The population is very small (less than 2%) and continues to decrease. In Bulgaria and Hungary, there is even a natural decline in population. The main reason for this is the violation of the age and sex structure of the population as a result of the Second World War.
In some countries, the natural increase is higher than the average for the region (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia), and it is the largest in Albania - 20%.
The largest country in the region is Poland (about 40 million people), the smallest is Estonia (about 1.5 million people).
The population of Eastern Europe is distinguished by a complex ethnic composition, but the predominance of the Slavic peoples can be noted. Of the other peoples, the Romanians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Lithuanians are the most numerous. Poland, Hungary, Albania are distinguished by the most homogeneous national composition. Lithuania.
Eastern Europe has always been an arena of national and ethnic conflicts. After the collapse socialist system the situation became more complicated, especially on the territory of the most multinational country in the region - Yugoslavia, where the conflict escalated into an interethnic war.
The most urbanized country in Eastern Europe is the Czech Republic (3/4 of the population lives in cities). There are quite a lot of urban agglomerations in the region, the largest of them are Upper Silesian (in Poland) and Budapest (in Hungary). But most countries are characterized by historically formed small towns and villages, and for the Baltic countries - farms.
economy
The countries of Eastern Europe today are not characterized by a pronounced socio-economic unity. But in general it can be said that _. in the 2nd half of the 20th century. in the economies of the countries of V. Europe there were Big changes. Firstly, industries developed at a faster pace - by the 80s of V. Europe turned into one of the most industrial regions of the world, and secondly, previously very backward regions also began to develop industrially (For example, Slovakia in the former Czechoslovakia, Moldova in Romania, northeast Poland). Such results became possible thanks to the implementation of regional policy.
Energy
Due to the shortage of oil reserves, this area is focused on coal, most of the electricity is generated at thermal power plants (more than 60%), but hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants also play an important role. One of the largest nuclear power plants, Kozloduy in Bulgaria, has been built in the region.
Metallurgy
In the post-war period, the industry actively grew and developed in all countries of the region, and non-ferrous metallurgy relies mainly on its own raw materials, while ferrous metallurgy relies on imported ones.
mechanical engineering
The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool building, production of household appliances and computer technology); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures, Hungary, Bulgaria, Latvia - by the electrical industry; in addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland and Estonia.
Chemical industry
The region's chemical industry lags far behind Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But still, the pharmaceutical industry of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic can be noted.
Agriculture of the region
Mainly meets the needs of the population in food. In the structure of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe, under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes took place: agro-industrial complex arose, specialization of agricultural production took place. It manifested itself most clearly in grain farming and in the production of vegetables, fruits, and grapes.
The structure of the economy of the region is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Baltic countries, the share of animal husbandry exceeds the share of crop production, in the rest - the ratio is still the opposite.
Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated in the central part of the subregion, and the "southern" countries specialize in subtropical crops.
The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, fruits.
The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Rumania, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria).
Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.
Vegetables, fruits, grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine specialization Agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in the range of products. For example, Hungary is famous for winter varieties of apples, grapes, onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.
Livestock. The northern and central countries of the region specialize in dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, while the southern countries specialize in mountain pasture meat and wool cattle breeding.
Transport
In Eastern Europe, lying at the crossroads that have long connected the eastern and western parts of Eurasia, the transport system has been formed over many centuries. Now, in terms of traffic volume, rail transport is leading, BUT automobile and sea transport are also intensively developing. The presence of the largest ports contributes to the development of external economic ties, shipbuilding, ship repair, fishing.
Intra-regional differences
The countries of Eastern Europe can be conditionally divided into 3 groups according to the commonality of their EGL, resources, and level of development.
1. Northern group: Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. These countries are still characterized by a low degree of integration, but there are common tasks in the development of the marine economy.
2. Central group: Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary. The economy of the first two countries has a pronounced industrial character. The Czech Republic ranks first in the region in terms of industrial output per capita.
3. Southern group: Romania, Bulgaria, countries of the former Yugoslavia, Albania. In the past, these were the most backward countries, and now, despite great changes in their economy, the countries of this group lag behind the countries of the 1st and 2nd groups in most indicators.
Foreign Europe includes countries outside the CIS. Their territory is more than 5 million square kilometers, where almost five hundred million people live. Speaking of foreign Europe, we have in mind approximately forty sovereign states connected not only by historical fate, but also by the closest economic, political and cultural threads.
Foreign Europe is one of the main centers of human civilization. This is the birthplace of urban agglomerations, great geographical discoveries, as well as great industrial revolutions. And despite the fact that the era of "Eurocentrism" is already in the past, foreign Europe occupies an important place not only in the politics of the world, but also in its economy.
Studying the industry of foreign Europe (grade 11 - the time when this topic is given attention at school), we consider it as an integral region. At the same time, according to experts, the countries located on its territory rank first in the world in the areas of agricultural and industrial production. The region does not miss the leading positions in the export of services and goods, in reserves of currency and gold, as well as in the development of international tourist relations.
The economic power of foreign Europe lies in the four countries of the "big seven". France and Germany, Italy and England are on their list. It is these states that have the widest range of diverse industries and industries. However, the balance of power between the four leading countries is undergoing certain changes. Thus, over the past decades, the role of leader has been won by the FRG. And this is not surprising. After all, the economy of this country is developing very dynamically. At the same time, Great Britain lost its prestige of the “workshop of the world”.
The remaining countries of foreign Europe, whose economy is of the greatest economic importance, are Switzerland and Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands and Sweden. In these states, only certain industries are developed that have worldwide recognition.
A special place in the region is occupied by countries located in Eastern Europe. In them, starting from the end of the eighties, there is an active transition from the system of central planning and public ownership that took place to the rails of market relations.
The basis of the economy of foreign Europe is industry. It plays a dominant role, even though in many countries in the region the lion's share of the economy is made up of agriculture and services. The industry of foreign Europe has been its peculiar face for several centuries.
The development of mankind and historical circumstances in one way or another have constantly transformed the world market. The model of the industry of foreign Europe was also subjected to changes. So, if before the 2nd World War the region was famous for its expensive unique products, then after the end of hostilities, its enterprises reoriented to the needs of the mass consumer.
The main share of science-intensive and highly complex products came from the United States. The industry of foreign Europe became famous for machine tools and cars, electronics and technological equipment. The production of goods for the mass user began in the region.
This trend did not change until the end of the seventies. During this period, the industry of foreign Europe gave impetus to a kind of division of labor between the states of the region. Thus, the Mediterranean countries continued to produce goods for a wide range of customers. At this time, the production of aviation and ships was actively developing in England, France and the FRG. All this reduced the gap between the region and the United States.
Let's consider the main overseas Europe that have weight at the present time.
If you are asked: “Specify the main foreign Europe”, then it is worth considering the area in which more than thirty percent of the inhabitants of the region are employed. It is mechanical engineering, which provides one of the widest product ranges in the world.
This main foreign Europe is represented in almost all countries of the region. However, the level of development of this sphere in individual states is different. For example, in Europe there is a certain group of leaders. These countries have almost the entire range of industries, the work of which not only satisfies the internal needs of the region, but also allows you to send products for export.
There are also countries in foreign Europe that have only one or several highly developed areas of machine-building production. At the same time, the demand for certain types of products is met by them through imports.
The group of leaders, first of all, includes Germany and England, and to a lesser extent France and Italy belong to them. One or more branches of the engineering industry exist in the Netherlands and Belgium, Sweden and Switzerland.
The characteristics of the industry of foreign Europe cannot but affect such countries as Denmark and Austria, Finland and Norway. In these states, mechanical engineering is poorly developed. However, they also contain one or two industries that have gained recognition in the world market. So, Finland is famous for its pulp and paper equipment, Norway for shipbuilding, etc.
In general, the machine-building industry of foreign European countries produces almost twenty-five percent of the world's products in this segment. Textile, electrical, technological equipment, control and measuring and scientific instruments, trucks and cars, as well as tractors are supplied from the countries of the region.
The most developed industry in foreign Europe is in the automotive industry. In Germany, such concerns as Daimler, Volkswagen, Mercedes and BMW are successfully operating. Peugeot-Citroen and Renault cars are supplied from France. Italy is famous for its Fiats.
In Germany, the Netherlands and England there is a highly developed shipbuilding industry. The whole world knows such companies as Bosch and Philips, Mulineks and Tefal. Their main production facilities for the production of telephones, computers and household appliances were built in Germany, France and the Netherlands. Switzerland produces high quality watches.
The machine-building industry of foreign Europe focuses primarily on the existing labor resources. In addition, the scientific base of the region and the high level of its infrastructure contribute to the development of the main industry.
It is the second largest avant-garde industry in the region. The chemical industry of foreign Europe, as well as mechanical engineering, developed very rapidly in the second half of the last century. Moreover, this was typical for the entire region.
Interestingly, the chemical industry has mastered a new raw material base. She switched to using oil and its intermediates as the main source of organic chemicals. This raw material has become the basis of the production of this industry. Since in the period before the Second World War the industry focused on brown and hard coal, table and potash salts, as well as pyrites, all its production was located in the areas of their development.
With the reorientation of this sphere, it shifted to oil sources. So, in the western part of the region, large centers of petrochemistry appeared, built in the estuaries of the Rhine and Thames, Elbe and Seine, as well as the Rhone. In these regions, this industry is perfectly combined with oil refining.
The reorientation of the industry also affected the eastern regions Western Europe. Here, on the main gas and oil pipelines, petrochemical plants and refineries were created. The main enterprises of this type are located in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and the Czech Republic. They were erected along the route of gas pipelines and the international oil pipeline, which previously pumped raw materials from the Soviet Union, and today - from Russia.
In addition, before the outbreak of World War II, determining the level of development of the chemical industry consisted in measuring the volume of sulfuric acid released by it. Currently, this indicator directly depends on the amount of plastic produced.
The development of the second largest avant-garde industry in foreign Europe is uneven. Thus, the industries of Italy and England, Germany and France fully satisfy their internal needs for chemical products, being, moreover, their major exporters. As for the Scandinavian countries, only certain industries are well developed on their territory, such as, for example, the production of nitrogen fertilizers. Wherein a large number of names of chemical products are imported by them from abroad.
There are countries in foreign Europe that specialize only in a narrow range of industries. For example, pharmaceuticals are developed in Switzerland, while the petrochemical industry is developed in the Netherlands and Belgium. But, despite this, these countries have close ties with the world market, exporting up to 65 percent of their products to it.
But in general, the states of foreign Europe are major sellers of artificial and synthetic fibers, plastics, paints and varnishes, pharmaceuticals, dyes and nitrogen fertilizers. At the same time, the region consumes new and latest products chemical industry supplied from the USA.
If you need a description of one of the industries of foreign Europe, then you should carefully study state of the art chemical sphere of the region. In recent decades, there has been a trend towards a reduction in imports. However, in this case, it was not without the participation of American monopolies, which are actively creating their own enterprises in Europe. Their work is aimed at creating the latest chemical products.
This economic sphere of foreign Europe, as well as the chemical industry, focuses on natural gas and oil. This raw material is mined in the North Sea and imported from Russia and developing countries. At present, there has been a sharp decline in the production and consumption of coal in Germany and England, Belgium, the Netherlands and France. Orientation to this fuel is still preserved in the eastern parts of the region. Thus, in Poland and the Czech Republic, a large share of raw materials for the fuel and energy complex is lignite. Many thermal power plants operating here are guided by it. Moreover, coal is taken not only from its own pools. It is imported and unloaded in major European ports.
The geography and structure of the region's electric power industry are increasingly dependent on nuclear power plants. They already operate in Germany and Belgium, the Czech Republic and Hungary, Bulgaria and the UK, as well as France.
In the tributaries of the Rhone and on the Danube, hydroelectric power is produced. However, with the exception of Switzerland, Sweden and Norway, hydroelectric power plants usually play a supporting role. Recently, economical pumped storage power plants have been built in foreign Europe.
This branch of industry was formed in the region even before the advent of the era. First of all, ferrous metallurgy developed in those countries that had their own metallurgical fuel or raw materials. These states include Germany and France, England and Spain, Luxembourg and Spain, the Czech Republic and Poland. After the end of the 2nd World War, the largest plants were built or expanded in the territories located in close proximity to seaports. This was due to the focus on importing scrap metal and high quality iron ore.
To date, the most modern and largest plant, located near the seaport, was built in Taranto, Italy. Recently, however, mini-factories have been mainly built in the region.
The most important branches of non-ferrous metallurgy in foreign Europe include the aluminum and copper industries. Aluminum production facilities are located in countries with bauxite reserves. These are Italy and France, Romania, Greece and Hungary. Similar production facilities are also located in Austria and Germany, Switzerland and Norway. It does not have its own raw materials, but a large amount of electricity is generated.
Copper production is developed in France and Germany, Poland, England and Belgium.
What other industries have been widely developed in the region? One of them is the timber industry of foreign Europe. First of all, it focuses on its own sources of raw materials. That is why this industry is especially developed in Finland and Sweden. These countries are traditional leaders in sawmilling and timber harvesting, paper and pulp exports.
Deserves special attention light industry foreign Europe. It was from this industry that the entire industrialization of the region began. To date, the light industry of foreign Europe has lost its former positions.
Textile regions such as Flanders (Belgium), Yorkshire and Lancashire (England), Lyon (France) and Milan (Italy) have an important weight in the region. All these centers for the production of clothing and footwear arose back in the 19th century, at the time of the birth of industrial revolution. They are still active today. Recently, however, there has been a tendency for the light industry to shift to this region. This is explained by the reserves of cheap labor available here. For example, Portugal can now be called the main garment factory in the region. Italy, on the other hand, produces so many shoes that it is second only to China in terms of its volume.
The peoples of many European countries preserve their national traditions, which are expressed in the production of musical instruments and furniture, jewelry and metal and glass products, toys, etc.
For example, Belgium is known for its hunting rifles (Brownings), as well as diamond processing. It is no coincidence that the world diamond trade center is located in the city of Antwerp. Liechtenstein is home to the world's largest artificial teeth factory. These products are sold in more than one hundred countries around the world.
The light, timber industry of foreign Europe, although they do not play a leading role in the industry of the region, are an integral part of its entire economy.
The video lesson "Industry, Leading Industries of Foreign Europe" reveals the typical features of the economy of developed European countries. The lesson will introduce you to the structure of the economy, the main industrial areas of the region. The teacher will tell you about the main features of the geographical distribution of the main industries in Europe.
Topic: Regional characteristics of the world. Foreign Europe
Lesson: Industry, leading sectors of the economy of Foreign Europe
Chemical industry in foreign Europe takes the second place after mechanical engineering. In particular, this applies to the most "chemicalized" country not only in this region, but also in almost the whole world - Germany. Until the Second World War, the chemical industry focused mainly on hard and lignite coal, potash and table salts, pyrites and was located in the areas of their extraction. The reorientation of the industry to hydrocarbon raw materials has led to the fact that it has moved "to oil". In the western part of the region, this shift found expression primarily in the emergence of large centers of petrochemistry in the estuaries of the Thames, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, and Rhone, where this industry is combined with oil refining. The region's largest hub of petrochemical production and refineries was formed in the estuary of the Rhine and Scheldt in the Netherlands, near Rotterdam. In fact, it serves the whole of Western Europe. In the eastern part of the region, the shift "to oil" has led to the creation of refineries and petrochemical plants along the routes of main oil and gas pipelines. The main oil refining and petrochemical enterprises of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary were built on the route of the Druzhba international oil pipeline and gas pipelines, through which oil and natural gas came from the Soviet Union, and now from Russia. In Bulgaria, for the same reason, petrochemistry has been "shifted" to the Black Sea coast.
AT fuel and energy economy In most countries of foreign Europe, the leading position was occupied by oil and natural gas produced both in the region itself (the North Sea) and imported from developing countries, from Russia. The extraction and consumption of coal in the UK, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium have declined sharply. In the eastern part of the region, the focus on coal is still preserved, and not so much on hard coal (Poland, Czech Republic), but on brown coal. Perhaps there is no other area in the world where brown coal would play such a big role in the fuel and energy balance. The majority of TPPs are also oriented towards coal basins. But they are also built in seaports (on imported fuel) and in large cities. An increasing impact on the structure and geography of the electric power industry - especially in France, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria - is exerted by the construction of nuclear power plants. On the Danube and its tributaries, on the Rhone, the upper Rhine, the Duero, hydroelectric power stations or their entire cascades have been built. But still, in most countries, with the exception of Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, hydroelectric power plants now play a supporting role. Since the region's hydro resources have already been used by 4/5, more economical pumped storage power plants have been built in recent years. Iceland uses geothermal energy.
Metallurgical industry foreign Europe was mainly formed before the beginning of the era of scientific and technological revolution. Ferrous metallurgy has been developed primarily in countries that have metallurgical fuel and (or) raw materials: Germany, Great Britain, France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Poland, and the Czech Republic. After the Second World War, large plants were built or expanded in seaports with a focus on importing higher quality and cheaper iron ore and scrap metal. The largest and most modern of the plants built in seaports is located in Taranto (Italy). Recently, not large plants, but mini-factories have been built mainly. The most important branches of non-ferrous metallurgy are the aluminum and copper industries. Aluminum production arose both in countries with bauxite reserves (France, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Greece) and in countries where there is no aluminum raw material, but a lot of electricity is generated (Norway, Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Recently, aluminum smelters are increasingly oriented towards raw materials coming from developing countries by sea. The copper industry has received the greatest development in Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Poland.
timber industry, focusing primarily on the sources of raw materials, has become an industry of international specialization in Sweden and Finland. Light industry, with which the industrialization of foreign Europe began, has largely lost its former significance. The old textile districts, formed at the dawn of the industrial revolution (Lancashire and Yorkshire in Great Britain, Flanders in Belgium, Lyon in France, Milan in Italy), as well as those that arose already in the 19th century. The Lodz region of Poland still exists today. But lately light industry has been shifting to Southern Europe, where there are still reserves of cheap labor. So, Portugal has become almost the main "clothing factory" of the region. And Italy in the production of shoes is second only to China. In many countries, rich national traditions are also preserved in the production of furniture, musical instruments, glassware, metal products, jewelry, toys, etc.
Rice. 4. Workshop for the production of Lego blocks ()
Homework
Topic 6, Item 1
1. What are the main industries in foreign Europe?
2. Using the material covered, atlas maps, give examples of engineering centers in foreign Europe.
Bibliography
Main
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Additional
1. Economic and social geography of Russia: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.T. Khrushchev. - M.: Bustard, 2001. - 672 p.: ill., cart.: tsv. incl.
Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections
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Literature for preparing for the GIA and the Unified State Examination
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3. The optimal bank of tasks for preparing students. Unified state exam 2012. Geography. Tutorial./ Comp. EM. Ambartsumova, S.E. Dyukov. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2012. - 256 p.
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Materials on the Internet
1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Federal portal Russian Education ().
The beginning of the nineties was marked by the collapse of the socialist camp. After excommunication from the USSR, the economies of Eastern European countries experienced a shock, but in some sovereign states they quickly recovered. Political chaos began in Russia with a series of military conflicts, terrorist attacks and economic crisis.
For almost three decades, relations between the Russian Federation and the countries of Eastern Europe have evolved in different ways. They played the role of resentment accumulated over many years of commonwealth. There is an unwillingness of the "third force" to allow the resumption of friendly relations between former members socialist camps.
In addition, the Kremlin's militarized course is alarming for its neighbors.
On a note. Geographers are divided. Some of them also include the Balkans in Eastern Europe, while others do not. Although these states traditionally included territories that became part of the USSR after the Great Patriotic War.
Currently, the UN Department of Statistics has an exact list of countries in Eastern Europe.
The list includes 10 states:
These countries have relatively recently embarked on the path of independent development and are far behind their neighbors in the West. "Compensates" for the lag in the economy careful attitude to cultural heritage.
Excluding the first four countries, the rest have entered and enjoy all the privileges of the commonwealth.
The installation of the “perestroika” model of economic reforms imposed by the Soviet Union in the late eighties, first of all, failed in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, etc.
The desire to introduce democracy and glasnost pushed the existing system to collapse. People began to openly express their dissatisfaction. Gorbachev, as a supporter of the democratization of the socialist camp, supported the opposition and radical parties calling for separatism.
There were "velvet revolutions" in the countries. Poland was the first to change its political course. In the elections in 1989, the opposition Solidarity Party, which was not communist, came to power. Once in power, she organized the presidential elections in 1990, in which the leader of the party, Lech Walesa, won the victory.
Around the same time, democratic elections were held on the territory of Hungary, which put an end to the socialist system. Arpad Göncz, chairman of the second largest opposition party, the Union of Free Democrats, became head of state.
A more violent change of power took place in countries such as Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. In Bucharest, an armed uprising arose, which resulted in the execution of the former leader of the country, Ceausescu and his wife. If you do not take into account Romania, then in other countries the change of power occurred without bloodshed, which gave the name "velvet revolution" to such a scheme.
The change of power that took place in the East European countries ah brought with it significant foreign policy implications. The USSR collapsed and the Warsaw Pact organization ceased to exist. Parts of the Soviet Army were withdrawn from East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia in 1991.
Sovereign states have become the center of attention of the European Union and the NATO bloc. In the first five-year plan of the 21st century, some countries integrated into the EU and the NATO military organization. The region began to bear the name of Central-Eastern Europe.
For this period, the states of the Eastern European region are subject to dual processes: the rise of the economic sector is replaced by a crisis in the state apparatus and an increase in budgetary tensions.
Even among countries that are considered prosperous, the standard of living of the population has a downward trend. As a consequence, the poor development of the economic sector with a negative effect in the social sphere destabilizes the prospect of economic recovery. These problems are the result of the lack of reforms that the leading politicians did not carry out in their time.
The following trends are taking place:
The leaders of the Eastern European region in terms of economic development are considered and. The latter, however, as a more conservative one, does not try to fully open up. They are followed by and .
There is a large income gap between these four countries and other countries in the region.
The openness of the countries of Eastern Europe leads to the fact that, along with the launch of new technological enterprises by foreign investors, the number of unemployed is growing. Local population forced to leave their native places and go to Western Europe in search of a better life. (
Mineral resources of Europe
The main mining of copper ore takes place in Poland (Lower Silesian basin). In addition, the region has large reserves of rock salt. Bauxites are mined in the northwest of Hungary.
There is forest in the region, but in small quantities. Poland and Slovakia are the richest in forests. In other countries, it is presented in the form of plantations that protect fields, reservoirs, the sea coast, parks in recreational areas.
Economy of Eastern European countries
After the collapse of the socialist camp, the powers of Eastern Europe showed no interest in socio-economic unity.
Each state began to independently seek improvements. The industry received a new development, since the second half of the 20th century passed under the banner of dense industrialization of the region. The legacy of socialism is quite suitable for further life.
mechanical engineering
All the main branches of mechanical engineering were widely developed: the production of machine tools and forging and pressing machines (Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Switzerland, Czech Republic, etc.), power equipment, electronic equipment, television and radio equipment (Germany, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands etc.), automotive industry (France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Czech Republic, Hungary, etc.), shipbuilding (Germany, Sweden, Great Britain, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Finland). Military engineering has reached a large scale, in particular aircraft construction (the Federal Republic of Germany, France, and Great Britain stand out).
Ferrous metallurgy
Key Industries non-ferrous metallurgy(aluminum, lead-zinc and copper) have been predominantly developed in countries with sources of mineral raw materials and cheap electricity. France, Hungary, Greece, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, Great Britain specialize in aluminum smelting; Germany, France, Poland, Yugoslavia stand out for copper smelting; Germany, Belgium - lead and zinc).
AT fuel and energy
Most of the oil and natural gas production comes from the North Sea (the UK and Norway sectors) and the Netherlands (the Groningen field in the northeast of the country). Coal mining (stone and brown) is carried out in Germany, Great Britain, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Agriculture
For foreign Europe, as a whole, the livestock profile of agriculture is characteristic. Crop production, as a rule, serves the needs of animal husbandry. For this reason, in many countries, fodder crops occupy large areas, part of the harvest of grain crops (wheat, barley, corn) is fed to livestock.
The main crops are wheat, barley, corn, rye. France is the only major grain exporter in the region. France accounts for approximately 1/3 of the grain harvest.
Foreign Europe is an area of developed fishing. Some of its countries (Iceland, Norway, Portugal) are among the leaders of marine fisheries.
In accordance with the natural features on the territory of Foreign Europe, three areas of agricultural specialization have developed. The agriculture of the Nordic countries (Iceland, Ireland, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland) is characterized by the predominance of dairy farming, and in the crop production that serves it, fodder crops and gray bread (rye, barley).
In crop production, high specific gravity grain, industrial and food crops (potatoes, vegetables, etc.), large areas of arable land are allocated for fodder crops. Agriculture in the countries of Southern Europe (Mediterranean regions) is characterized by a significant predominance of crop production, while animal husbandry plays a secondary role. The specialization of agriculture is determined by the production of fruits, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, almonds, nuts, tobacco, essential oil crops.
Transport. The main role in the transportation of goods and passengers is played by road transport. Highways of international importance: Lisbon - Paris - Stockholm, London - Frankfurt am Main - Vienna - Belgrade - Istanbul, etc. The importance of inland waterways is especially prominent for the rivers Rhine and Danube.
2) London - Paris - Marseille,
Maritime transport and the seaports serving it are of international importance: London, Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Le Havre, Marseille, Genoa. The largest of them is Rotterdam, whose cargo turnover is 250-300 million tons per year.
The second region overseas Europe .
Western Europe is a historical-geographical region included in the region Europe Abroad. In world trade, it accounts for about half of the total turnover.
"Face" of Western Europe in the international geographical division labor is industry, and in the first place its leading industry is mechanical engineering.
This branch accounts for about one-third of the value of all industrial products. Mechanical engineering in Western Europe is represented by many sub-sectors. Almost all types of machine-building products are produced here, the production of machine tools, optics, electronics and radio electronics, and automobiles stands out in particular.
Economic and political weather in Western Europe is done in the leading countries of the "big seven": Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy; Germany is the leader among them.
In the international division of labor, the face of Germany is determined, first of all, by a developed mechanical engineering.
The monopolistic elite of the country is the concerns of new industries - not only the automotive industry, but also aerospace engineering, Volkswagen, Siemens (electronics), Deutsche Telecom (information technology), etc.
Great Britain . The largest branch of British industry - mechanical engineering - employs one-fourth of all employed in the manufacturing industry.
Transport engineering dominates. About one third of the capital spent on production Vehicle, owned by American companies that established themselves in the British Isles after the 2nd World War. Enterprises of this industry are available in almost all areas and in most cities in the UK. The first major automotive industry was the West Midlands, centered on Birmingham. This was facilitated by its central position, which facilitated not only the receipt of parts and auxiliary materials from numerous enterprises located around, but also the sale of finished products in the domestic and foreign markets - through Liverpool and London.
The second region of the automotive industry was the south-east of England (with centers in Oxford, Luton and Danemega), where there were an abundance of workers.
One of the fastest growing branches of engineering is aircraft manufacturing. One large state-owned firm, British Airspace, dominates here.
In terms of aircraft production, Great Britain is second only to the United States in the foreign world. It produces about 22 types of vehicles: military, passenger, cargo and several types of small-sized aircraft for special purposes.
The growing and developing industries include electrical engineering, which ranks second among the manufacturing industries in terms of the number of employees.
Several large companies dominate electrical engineering. Production of "heavy" electrical engineering - electric motors, powerful generators, transformers and turbines. They are produced by practically one major monopoly, General Electronics, with which two other electrical engineering firms, English Electric and Associated Electric Industrials, have merged.
Electronics is developing especially fast. However, the number of jobs in the electronics industry is growing rather slowly.
The American corporations of the electronics industry have firmly established themselves in Great Britain.
France. Along with Germany and Great Britain, France plays a major role in the world economy and international relations.
The highly developed industry of this country occupies a leading position in the world in nuclear energy, in some types of transport engineering, and in the chemical industry. It noticeably concedes to the industry of the USA, Japan, Germany. The largest industrial centers are Paris, Marseille, Le Havre, Dunkirk, Lille, Strasbourg, Nantes, Toulouse.
A special position in Western Europe is occupied by the so-called small countries .
There are only 13 of them (not counting the dwarf states of Liechtenstein, Monaco, etc.): Australia, Belgium, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden.
Sometimes they include Spain.
Despite the fact that the share of each of these countries in the world economy is relatively small, taken together, they represent a powerful force. Their share in the industrial production of Western Europe is about 30%, and in foreign trade - 40%. Most of them have highly intensive agriculture.
Particularly impressive are the positions of the small countries of Europe in the production of equipment, machine tool building, shipbuilding, and electrical engineering.
Eastern Europe includes Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Albania, as well as Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
Poland- the largest of these countries in terms of economic potential.
Engineering here, has reached high level, however, it is characterized by increased metal consumption. Machines and equipment for industry, construction and agriculture are produced here, transport and tractor construction is also developed.
For most types of products manufactured in this industry, Poland occupies a leading position in Europe. A special place in the mechanical engineering of Poland belongs to shipbuilding - an industry of international specialization. Poland produces vessels of various types and purposes.
The electrical industry is growing rapidly.
production of household appliances. The main centers of mechanical engineering: Warsaw, Lodz, Wroclaw, Poznan, Gdansk, Bydgoszcz.
in the Czech Republic(Prague, Pilsen, Brno, etc.), mechanical engineering is the most developed. It supplies machine tools, complete equipment for enterprises, computers, household appliances, etc. to the foreign market.
Third region – East and Southeast Asia, in which Japan is the leader. It includes the "Asian tigers", specializing primarily in the production of consumer electronics, and China.
Japan(the capital is
Tokyo is an island state in the Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of Eurasia. It occupies the archipelago of the Japanese Islands, the largest of them: Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido. Japan is one of the "economic pillars" of the modern world.
Evidence rapid growth, versatility and high technical development of Japanese engineering can be found in almost every corner of the globe. Ships built in Japanese shipyards ply the waters of all oceans. Japanese cameras, transistorized receivers and sewing machines have earned a reputation for being the highest quality products, and the demand for them in the world market is very high.
Japanese cars, buses, trucks and railway rolling stock carry out transportation on the roads of 5 continents of the planet.
Electric generators made in Japan provide light and energy to homes and industrial enterprises Asia, Africa, Australia, North and South America. Japanese spinning and weaving equipment is the basis for the development of the textile industry in many countries in Asia and other continents.
The production of electrical apparatus is the fastest growing branch of mechanical engineering. Fantastic fast growth This industry is determined by the fact that a developing country needed powerful electrical units, as well as by the fact that the demand for household electrical appliances was growing very quickly.
Electrical apparatus, including electronic products, are exported mainly to North America, Asia and Europe. One of the main achievements of Japanese mechanical engineering in recent years has been the phenomenally rapid growth in the production of electronic products. Products of the electronics industry, such as televisions, tape recorders, radios, stereo radios, account for 46.7% of the total output.
China- a great ancient state.
Modern China - the People's Republic of China (capital - Beijing) - ranks third in the world in terms of territory (9.6 million sq. Km.) After Russia and Canada.
Mechanical engineering is distinguished by a variety of products, and not specialized, but universal enterprises prevail, which are located near large cities, a metallurgical base and seaports. The level of equipment and technology used by the PRC is not yet very high, there is a lot of worn-out equipment, and labor productivity is still low.
However, in recent years, as a result of economic reform The PRC has achieved notable success in the manufacture of household electrical equipment, appliances, computers, the latest means of communication, and so on. Enterprises with the involvement of foreign capital have become widespread.
The main centers of mechanical engineering are Shanghai, Shenyang, Tan-jin, Harbin, Beijing, Luoyang, Changchun, etc.
group of new industrial countries Asia, consists of two "echelons".
The Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong were usually referred to the first of them, which, due to their rapid economic leap, began to be called the four "Asian tigers" (or "dragons"). Then their example was followed by three more countries - members of ASEAN, which formed, as it were, the "second tier" of the NIS of Asia - Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia.
In the 70-80s. there was a restructuring of the economies of these countries on the model of the Japanese model.
A large automobile, oil refining, petrochemical, shipbuilding, and especially electrical and electronic industries arose in them; Every year, tens of millions of radios, televisions, tape recorders, and video recorders are produced here.
The “economic miracle” of these countries is explained both by the activity of local businessmen and by the fact that TNCs have chosen them as an important area for the investment of their capital, focusing primarily on the benefits of their EGP and exceptionally hardy, disciplined and at the same time relatively cheap labor force. .
But almost all science-intensive and other products are intended for sale in the markets of Western countries.
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political economy D.
Ricardo as the ideologist of the industrial revolution
The industrial revolution in England in the last third of the 18th century. D. Ricardo - the ideologist of the era of the industrial revolution, his theory of value, wages, profits, land rent. The industrial revolution in the works of historians and economists, its history in the USA.
term paper, added 12/03/2013
Peculiarities economic development England
Industrial Revolution in England. The development of capitalism in agriculture in the first half of the 19th century.
period of the industrial revolution. Factory cities with powerful industry, equipped with sophisticated machines and built with the latest technology.
presentation, added 06/23/2013
Features and problems of the industrial revolution in Russia. Development of capitalism
Prerequisites for the start of the industrial revolution in Russia. Stages of development of the industrial revolution. Progressive social and territorial division of labor, social differentiation.
Formation of monopoly and state capitalism.
presentation, added 11/15/2010
Industrial Revolution in the USA
Political and technical background, features of the industrial revolution. Sources of funds for the development of large-scale industrial production, the active role of American engineering. American Civil War - economic causes and consequences.
abstract, added 12/06/2009
Industrial Revolution in the USA
Definition of the concept of industrial revolution as a transition from manufacturing to machine production, a change in the structure of society from agrarian to industrial.
Technical prerequisites for the emergence of the factory industry in the United States in the 50-60s. XIX century.
abstract, added 12/14/2012
History of the economy of the leading countries in the 18th century
England as a classical country of primitive accumulation of capital.
Holland as a country of the first capitalist echelon. The consequences of the Industrial Revolution for England. Features of the industrial revolution in France. Formation of capitalism in the USA.
abstract, added 07/24/2009
Industrial revolution in Russia
Prehistory of the industrial revolution in pre-reform Russia. The beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia in the 50s of the XIX century. Features of the development of the industrial revolution in the transition period.
The final stage of the industrial revolution (80-08s of the XIX century).
abstract, added 10/12/2009
The Genesis of the Capitalist Economy in England
lucky geographical position England at the crossroads of trade routes of world importance. England is a classic industrial revolution country. Sequence diagram of the industrial revolution. The division of society into antagonistic social groups.
abstract, added 07/23/2009
Factors behind the industrial backwardness of England in the 19th and 20th centuries
Socio-economic situation in the world in the late XIX - early XX centuries.
Completion of the industrial revolution and the creation of national financial and credit systems. Reasons for the loss of industrial monopoly by Great Britain. The inhibitory role of colony exploitation.
abstract, added 01/29/2010
Industrial capitalism and its main features
The revolutionary path of the formation of industrial capitalism.
Industrial capitalism in England. Background of the Industrial Revolution. Changes in the structure of the economy of England. World agrarian crisis of the 70-90s. 19th century Development of market infrastructure.
abstract, added 02/23/2009
Industry is the backbone of the foreign economy. The main industry is mechanical engineering.
Overseas Europe is the birthplace of machinery, the world's largest manufacturer and exporter of machinery and industrial equipment.
Mechanical construction is focused on the availability of a highly skilled workforce, the development of scientific foundations and infrastructures.
Widely developed all the main machines for the industry: the production of machine tools and machine tools (Germany, UK, France, Italy, Switzerland, Czech Republic, etc.), power equipment, electronic devices, television and radio (Germany, UK, France, the Netherlands, etc.). ), Automotive (France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Czech Republic, Hungary, etc.), Shipbuilding (Germany, Sweden, UK, Spain, France, Netherlands, Poland, Finland).
Great military technology has been achieved, in particular aircraft construction (Germany, France, Great Britain).
Overseas Europe is also a leader in the production and export of products chemical industry(plastic, synthetic and artificial fibers, pharmaceuticals, nitrogen and potash fertilizers, varnishes and paints).
The crude base is oil and natural gas (with domestic and imported) gas transportation and oil refining products, resources of local coal and lignite deposits, potassium and sodium salts.
In the production and export of chemical products, the share of the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands is especially high.
Metallurgy is one of the oldest industries in Europe.
Ferrous metallurgy develops in countries with metallurgical fuel and raw materials: Germany, Great Britain, France, Luxembourg, Sweden, Poland, etc.
Large steel plants are being set up in seaports (Genoa, Naples, Taranto in Italy, etc.) with a focus on imported raw materials and fuels.
Most important industries non-ferrous metallurgy(aluminum, lead-zinc and copper) have received priority development in countries with mineral resources and cheap electricity.
France, Hungary, Greece, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, Great Britain specialize in aluminum smelting; West Germany, France, Poland, Yugoslavia are intended for copper smelting; Germany, Belgium - lead and zinc).
Branches of international specialization - the woodworking industry, directed against the resources of raw materials (Sweden and Finland), clothing (Portugal) and footwear (Italy, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.). Focused on cheap labor resources.
In Ljubljana fuel and energy The balance of external Europe is dominated by oil and natural gas produced in the region and imported from the countries of the Middle East, Africa, the CIS (Russia) and others.
Most of the oil and gas production is located in the North Sea (UK and Norway) and the Netherlands (Groningen region in the northeast of the country).
Coal mining (stone and lignite) is carried out in the Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
In the electric power industry in most European countries (France, Belgium, Germany, UK, Poland, Sweden, etc.), the role of thermal power plants and nuclear power plants is excellent. The exceptions are Norway and Iceland, where hydroelectric power plants are the main type of power plant.
Prerequisites of natural development, leading industry Agriculture
The position of the majority of Orthodox Christians in Europe (with the exception of the Arctic islands of Svalbard) in temperate and subtropical regions, positive temperatures and high availability of moisture throughout the year (with the exception of the Mediterranean Sea, where sustainable agriculture needs artificial irrigation), the presence of natural meadows and pastures that favor the cultivation of various types of crops (cereals, industrial, subtropical, etc.), the development of animals.
The main disadvantage of the complex of favorable conditions is the relatively limited sources of agricultural land.
The region fully covers its needs for agricultural products through its own production and for certain types (grain, meat, milk and dairy products, sugar, eggs) exceeds domestic needs and occupies an important place in the world in terms of exports.
The whole of Europe as a whole is characterized by the profile of animal husbandry in agriculture.
Plant production generally serves the needs of livestock. For this reason, in many countries, fodder plants occupy large areas, the collection of cattle (wheat, barley, corn) is grown.
The bird has a mixture of milk and meat. Its main industry is the raising of cattle, especially dairy and dairy cattle. In some countries, pig breeding is important (Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania) and sheep breeds (Great Britain, Spain).
The main products are wheat, barley, corn and rye.
France is the only major grain exporter in the region. France represents about 1/3 of the grain harvest.
From other agricultural products, potatoes (France, Germany, Great Britain, Poland), sugar beets (France, Germany, Italy, Poland), grapes (Italy, France), olives (Italy, Spain), hops (Germany, Czech Republic and Slovakia ), tobacco, nuts and oils bear crops (Greece, Italy, Spain).
The share of the region in the world production of fibrous products (cotton, flax) is insignificant.
Foreign Europe is a region of developed fisheries.
Some of its countries (Iceland, Norway, Portugal) are among the leaders in fisheries.
In accordance with the natural features of the territory of Europe, three areas of agricultural specialization were created.
The agriculture of the Nordic countries (Iceland, Ireland, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland) is characterized by the dominant breeding of dairy cattle, and fodder plants and gray bread (rye, barley) are grown in their service center.
The countries of Western, Central and Eastern Europe (Central European region), together with dairy and dairy cattle breeding, specialize in pig and poultry farming.
When sowing plants, most of the grain, technical and food products (potatoes, vegetables, etc.) are intended for large areas of arable land for fodder plants.
For agriculture, the countries of Southern Europe (Mediterranean regions) are characterized by a significant predominance of crop production, and livestock production plays a secondary role. Specialized machines determine the production of fruits, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, almonds, walnuts, tobacco and Naftonozan crops.
Transport. Road transport plays an important role in the transportation of goods and passengers.
Highway of International Values from Lisbon. - Paris - Stockholm, London - Frankfurt - Vienna - Belgrade - Istanbul, etc. Inland waterways are of great importance and stand out from the Danube River.
dense network railways crosses overseas Europe in wider and meridional directions.
Main routes:
1) Lisbon - Madrid - Paris - Berlin - Warsaw (far away in Minsk and Moscow),
2) London - Paris - Vienna - Budapest - Belgrade - Sofia - Istanbul (Middle East),
3) Paris - Prague (near Kyiv).
The most important meridian routes are:
1) Amsterdam - Brussels - Paris - Madrid - Lisbon,
2) London-Paris-Marseille,
3) Copenhagen - Hamburg - Frankfurt am Main - Zurich - Rome,
4) Gdansk - Warsaw - Vienna - Budapest - Belgrade - Athens.
Pipeline and air transport are currently being developed.
Maritime transport and ports used by: London, Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Le Havre, Marseille, Genoa are of international importance.
The largest of them is Rotterdam, whose turnover is 250-300 million tons per year.
Foreign Europe is the main center of international tourism. The most visited areas are the Alps and the Mediterranean.
Submission date: 2016-01-30; Visits: 1035;
The basis of the economy of foreign Europe is industry. Leading industry - mechanical engineering. Foreign Europe is the birthplace of mechanical engineering, the world's largest manufacturer and exporter of machinery and industrial equipment.
Mechanical engineering is guided here by the presence of a highly skilled workforce, a developed scientific base and infrastructure.
All the main branches of mechanical engineering were widely developed: the production of machine tools and forging and pressing machines (Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Switzerland, Czech Republic, etc.), power equipment, electronic equipment, television and radio equipment (Germany, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands etc.), automotive industry (France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Czech Republic, Hungary, etc.), shipbuilding (Germany, Sweden, Great Britain, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Finland).
Military engineering has reached a large scale, in particular aircraft construction (the Federal Republic of Germany, France, and Great Britain stand out).
Foreign Europe occupies a leading position in the world also in the production and export of products chemical industry(plastics, synthetic and artificial fibers, pharmaceuticals, nitrogen and potash fertilizers, varnishes and paints).
The raw material base of the industry is made up of oil and natural gas (both domestic and imported), associated petroleum gases and refined products, resources of local deposits of hard and brown coal, potash and table salt.
The share of Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands is especially large in the production and export of products of the chemical industry.
One of the oldest industries in foreign Europe is metallurgical.
Ferrous metallurgy has been developed in countries that have metallurgical fuel and raw materials: Germany, Great Britain, France, Luxembourg, Sweden, Poland, etc. Large metallurgical plants have been created in seaports (Genoa, Naples, Taranto in Italy, etc.) with a focus on imported raw materials and fuel.
Key Industries non-ferrous metallurgy(aluminum, lead-zinc and copper) have been predominantly developed in countries with sources of mineral raw materials and cheap electricity.
France, Hungary, Greece, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, Great Britain specialize in aluminum smelting; Germany, France, Poland, Yugoslavia stand out for copper smelting; Germany, Belgium - lead and zinc).
Branches of international specialization are the timber industry, which focuses on sources of raw materials (Sweden and Finland), clothing (Portugal) and footwear (Italy, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.), focusing on reserves of cheap labor.
AT fuel and energy In the balance of Foreign Europe, the leading place is occupied by oil and natural gas, produced both in the region itself and imported from the countries of the Near and Middle East, Africa, the CIS (Russia), etc.
Most of the oil and natural gas production comes from the North Sea (the UK and Norway sectors) and the Netherlands (the Groningen field in the northeast of the country).
Coal mining (stone and brown) is carried out in Germany, Great Britain, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
In the electric power industry of most countries of foreign Europe (France, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Poland, Sweden, etc.), the role of thermal power plants and nuclear power plants is great. The exception is Norway and Iceland, where hydroelectric power stations are the main type of power plants.
Natural prerequisites for development, leading industries Agriculture
The position of most of Foreign Europe (except the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard) in the temperate and subtropical zones, positive temperature conditions and high moisture availability throughout the year (the exception is the Mediterranean region, where sustainable agriculture needs artificial irrigation), the presence of natural meadows and pastures are favorable for cultivation of many types of agricultural crops (grain, industrial, subtropical, etc.), development of animal husbandry.
The main drawback in the complex of favorable conditions is the relative limited resources of agricultural land.
The region fully covers its needs for agricultural products through its own production, and for certain types of it (grain, meat, milk and dairy products, sugar, eggs) exceeds domestic needs and occupies a prominent place in the world in their export.
For foreign Europe, as a whole, the livestock profile of agriculture is characteristic.
Crop production, as a rule, serves the needs of animal husbandry. For this reason, in many countries, fodder crops occupy large areas, part of the harvest of grain crops (wheat, barley, corn) is fed to livestock.
Animal husbandry has a dairy and meat bias. Its main branch is cattle breeding, mainly dairy and dairy-meat. In some countries, the importance of pig breeding (Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania) and sheep breeding (Great Britain, Spain).
The main crops are wheat, barley, corn, rye.
France is the only major grain exporter in the region. France accounts for approximately 1/3 of the grain harvest.
Of other types of agricultural products, the production of potatoes is significant (France, Germany, Great Britain, Poland stand out), sugar beets (France, Germany, Italy, Poland), grapes (Italy, France), olives (Italy, Spain), hops (Germany, Czech Republic and Slovakia), tobacco, nut and essential oil crops (Greece, Italy, Spain).
The share of the region in the world production of fibrous crops (cotton, flax) is insignificant.
Foreign Europe is an area of developed fishing.
Some of its countries (Iceland, Norway, Portugal) are among the leaders of marine fisheries.
In accordance with the natural features on the territory of Foreign Europe, three areas of agricultural specialization have developed.
The agriculture of the Nordic countries (Iceland, Ireland, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland) is characterized by the predominance of dairy farming, and in the crop production that serves it, fodder crops and gray bread (rye, barley).
The countries of Western, Central and Eastern Europe (Central European region), along with the cultivation of dairy and dairy-meat cattle, specialize in pig and poultry farming.
In crop production, a high proportion of grain, industrial and food crops (potatoes, vegetables, etc.), large areas of arable land are allocated for fodder crops.
Agriculture in the countries of Southern Europe (Mediterranean regions) is characterized by a significant predominance of crop production, while animal husbandry plays a secondary role. The specialization of agriculture is determined by the production of fruits, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, almonds, nuts, tobacco, essential oil crops.
Transport. The main role in the transportation of goods and passengers is played by road transport.
Highways of international importance: Lisbon - Paris - Stockholm, London - Frankfurt am Main - Vienna - Belgrade - Istanbul, etc. The importance of inland waterways is especially prominent for the rivers Rhine and Danube.
A dense network of railways crosses Foreign Europe in the latitudinal and meridional directions. Main latitudinal highways:
1) Lisbon - Madrid - Paris - Berlin - Warsaw (further on to Minsk and Moscow),
2) London - Paris - Vienna - Budapest - Belgrade - Sofia - Istanbul (further to the Middle East),
The most important meridional paths:
1) Amsterdam - Brussels - Paris - Madrid - Lisbon,
2) London - Paris - Marseille,
3) Copenhagen - Hamburg - Frankfurt am Main - Zurich - Rome,
4) Gdansk - Warsaw - Vienna - Budapest - Belgrade - Athens.
Developed pipeline and air transport.
Maritime transport and the seaports serving it are of international importance: London, Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Le Havre, Marseille, Genoa.
The largest of them is Rotterdam, whose cargo turnover is 250-300 million tons per year.
Foreign Europe is the main center of international tourism. The most visited tourist areas are the Alps and the Mediterranean.
State regulation of the economy in the old industrial regions of Germany.
Naydenova Raisa Ivanovna,
doctoral student of the Oryol Regional Academy of Public Administration,
Associate Professor at Starooskol Institute of Technology
(branch) of the Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys
For regional policy foreign countries characteristic attention is not
only to the most backward, depressed and other problematic
territories, but also to territories - poles, cores, corridors economic growth, the state support of which can have the strongest impact on the structure and dynamics of the national economy.
The economic regions of Western Europe are divided into four groups:
1) highly developed areas where new sectors of the economy are developing;
2) old industrial areas;
3) areas of new development;
4) backward agrarian regions.
According to the English scientist R.
Hudson, the old industrial regions, the so-called "workshops of the world" are losing their significance. Forming a strategy for the survival of the "peripheral regions", which fully include mining areas, Hudson sees four possible options reorganizations:
At the same time R.
Hudson emphasizes that local initiatives in the implementation of any option or combination of options are not sufficient to solve the problems of territorial restructuring.
D. Sadler draws attention to the fact that the depressed state of some territories leads to the rejection of entire regional population groups from the processes of socio-economic development of society. On the example of some old industrial territories of Western Europe, one can see how low labor status, regressive distribution of income, underdevelopment of social infrastructure, contradictions social strata exacerbate the socio-political situation in such areas (1).
Old industrial areas, one of the first to enter the stage industrial development, having a weakly diversified structure of the economy and their own specific features of the internal territorial structure, with a change in the economic and technological modes of production, they naturally enter the stage of depression.
Traditional industrial production is concentrated here, which is currently experiencing a structural crisis, while experiencing a shortage of capital, realistic and competitive development projects.
In developed foreign countries, the most typical problem regions are old industrial ones.
These are regions specialized in the "outgoing" industries of the previous industrial modes, which did not have time to develop new progressive industries in advance.
Many coal and metallurgical regions of Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium fell into the rank of depressed regions; developing countries with cheap labor, fewer economic constraints and other competitive advantages.
Agrarian and peripheral territories, which are unattractive for the development of modern science-intensive production, business services, and scientific and educational centers, found themselves in a very difficult situation. Such regions from year to year lost qualified personnel and young students, which reinforced their lag.
In Western Europe, a certain system of state regulation of depressive territories of the old industrial type has developed today.
The fundamental provisions of this system common to all countries are as follows:
Confession state support as a necessary condition for the rise of crisis and depressed regions, which should be provided in advance, before the onset of the crisis, even at the stage of prosperous, stable development;
In the practice of regional policy, the impact is not on the region as a whole, but on the most problematic part of it;
Solving priority social problems by creating new highly qualified jobs for local personnel, preventing a decrease in the level of incomes of the population, developing social infrastructure;
Stabilization of peripheral old industrial regions through the development of new knowledge-intensive industries in them,
business services, recreation;
Orientation to the internal resources of the region to achieve development stability.
Along with government regulation, in the modernization of the old industrial regions of foreign countries, in some cases, the role of transnational corporations (TICs), which have large financial opportunities for large investments in the economy (if it is beneficial for them), is great.
Thus, TNCs with a high share of American, Japanese, German capital contributed to the creation of a new "silicon valley" in Central Scotland, stabilization economic situation South Wales and Alsace.
The development of oil and gas production near the coasts of Great Britain and Norway contributed to the accelerated development of the coastal regions of these states and the exit from the depressive states (2).
In Germany, the examples of the Ruhr region and the lands of the former GDR are of the greatest importance for the world experience in regulating the problems of the regions.
The old industrial Ruhr region, which played a huge role in the industrialization of Germany, today unites 11 cities and their surrounding areas (4.4 thousand sq.
sq. km, 5.4 million people).
After the Second World War, the region regained its economic power within one decade, the basis of which was the coal industry. 50 new mines were built, and coal production in 1954 reached 112.8 million tons. However, already in the second half of the 1950s, a crisis began in the Ruhr coal industry due to competition from imported oil.
Coal production plummeted, many mines closed, the crisis spread to coal-related industries, and unemployment rose.
The German government chose the path of special economic support for the Ruhr region. Initially, subsidies were given to the coal industry and subsidized consumption of coal, especially CHP plants, in order to maintain consumer demand for coal. In 1968 was adopted the federal law on the restructuring and rehabilitation of the coal industry and coal-producing regions, in accordance with which the state determined the minimum required volume of coal production in the country, the amount of subsidies, subsidies for redundant workers and the cost of their retraining.
the entire coal industry of the Ruhr was merged into one concern "Rurkole" ("Ruhr coal") on the basis of an agreement between the Minister of Economics of Germany, the government of North Rhine-Westphalia, mine owners and trade unions.
Coal mining enterprises were bound by long-term contracts with metallurgical plants and power plants. A specific tax, the "coal pfennig", had a significant impact on the stabilization of coal sales. Every extra pfennig (0.01 marks) paid to consumers in excess of the price of a kilowatt-hour of electricity went to a special coal consumption fund, all of which was directed to the purchase of German coal instead of cheaper foreign (abolished in 1995).
These measures by the German government made it possible to avoid a collapse in coal production and buy time for a gradual and controlled restructuring of the entire economy of the Ruhr.
The main directions of the restructuring of the region's economy were:
Modernization of other "old" industries;
Development of higher education;
Creation of technological centers and on their basis - science-intensive
Environmental improvement.
Industrial modernization covered most of the metallurgical and chemical plants, heavy engineering enterprises. Environmentally polluted industries were liquidated, the range of products was radically updated, and industrial territories were reduced.
In the Ruhr region in 1960-1980.
5 new universities were founded with the aim of creating centers of learning, reducing youth unemployment, limiting emigration from the region and attracting new personnel.
A significant proportion of local students study for free, low-income students receive scholarships. The total number of students reaches 150 thousand.
(2 times more than the current number of miners), the number of scientists and teachers has increased many times, 12 technology centers (1993) strengthen the scientific and innovative potential of the region, providing entrepreneurs with premises, equipment, logistics, organizational and financial assistance.
Activities for the elimination and processing of industrial waste, protection and expansion of the green landscape were coordinated by the "Communal Union" using various financial sources.
The result of the implementation of this program was the ecological improvement of the entire region, and the most polluted area along the Emscher River was turned into a huge landscape park with a length of 320 km. accommodating recreational areas and ecozones, technological museums and innovative exhibitions.
By the mid-1990s, the Ruhr region had largely completed the process of radical economic restructuring.
Although the Ruhr is still the largest coal basin in Germany and Western Europe, the share of people employed in the coal industry is now 4.5% (73.5 thousand out of 1.6 million people), while the release of miners continues. Concern
Rurkole has consistently turned into a diversified regional, national, and then into a transnational corporation.
In 1995, he united all 78 mines of the basin, 3 coking plants, 2 briquette factories, became the owner of major stakes in electricity and heat production companies, building materials based on mine waste and the operation of thermal power plants, the production of various chemicals, equipment for the mining industry and much more.
The concern sells coal in Germany, mines coal in the USA and Venezuela, conducts reclamation work, builds roads, etc.
e. At the same time, coal production and consumption are still subsidized from federal budget.
A similar functional evolution is taking place in the Ruhr concern Krupp-Hoem, the largest steel producer, where only a quarter of the employees are employed in ferrous metallurgy, and three-quarters in new industries: metalworking, mechanical engineering, etc.
The unification of the two German states in 1990
gave rise to a set of new regional problems due to large socio-economic differences between the western and eastern lands.
The unification happened suddenly, without giving the opportunity for a gradual convergence of economic and social conditions two states. The result was shocks in the economically weaker eastern regions, many of which suddenly became problematic for the following reasons and signs:
1) a sharp decline in production due to the loss of demand in the national
market and the market of Eastern Europe, which gave rise to mass unemployment and
outflow of personnel;
2) a significant lag behind the western lands in terms of technical and
social infrastructure, environmental quality, efficiency
production and standard of living;
3) the need for a rapid change in the specialization of the main branches of production;
4) the need for a radical change in the entire institutional structure, its adaptation to the conditions of the FRG.
The new situation required the development and implementation of a new regional policy, the adoption of special laws defining the special status of the eastern lands, large-scale financial assistance from the federal budget to economically strong western regions, the implementation of a restructuring and modernization program, infrastructure development, education and retraining of personnel.
But even huge financial assistance has not allowed over the past 13 years to equalize the socio-economic indicators in these regions, this process will take several decades.
2. I.A. Eljanov. State and development: the role of the state in the global economy // World economy and international relationships- 2003 - No. 1 - P.3-14.
