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1 . The essence of the concept of "World Economy".
WORLD ECONOMY - the economy of all countries of the world community, considered taking into account intercountry economic interconnections and interactions. This is a set of national economies united by various types of world economic ide.
The world economy as a science (or academic discipline) is part of the theory market economy, which studies the patterns of economic interaction between different states in the field of international exchange of goods and services, the movement of factors of production relations.
world economy-- aggregate national economies countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which goods, services, and capital circulate freely in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production.
world economy-- a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which goods, services, and capital circulate freely in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production.
The characteristic features of the modern world economy are as follows:
* development of the international movement of factors of production, primarily in the form of export-import of capital, labor and technology;
* the growth on this basis of international forms of production at enterprises located in several countries, primarily within the framework of transnational corporations;
* economic policy states, providing support for the international movement of goods and factors of production on a bilateral and multilateral basis;
* the emergence of an open economy within many states and interstate associations.
2. Natural resource potential of the world economy
Natural resources are the primary source, the starting base for the economies of all countries at all stages of their development. There are two types of natural resources: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources can be used periodically and in an amount that does not deplete their cash for future consumption. Renewable natural resources include land, sea, rivers, solar heat and energy, etc. Forests, wildlife and fish stocks can also be examples of renewable resources. If logging and fishing are carried out moderately and rationally, then nature itself will take care of their reproduction. Non-renewable resources include those that are used once and are not reproduced by nature itself. Such resources include coal, oil, gas, etc.
Natural resources have two important economic dimensions - stock size and flow. The size of the stock of each resource is determined by the very nature and intensity of the previous use. The flows of natural resources depend on the level of their annual consumption. Human needs determine this flow, and depending on them, natural resources can be consumed quickly, slowly, or not used at all.
Labor force as an active part of the population is the second important component. The higher its proportion in the composition of the population, the greater the productive potential of the national economy.
The size of the employed (active) labor force depends on many economic, social and demographic factors. In terms of the share of employed, developing countries are significantly inferior to developed countries, and the number of hours worked per week is much higher in developing countries.
The rapid growth of the population in developing countries, the low share of its active part, significantly slows down, even lowers the growth of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, which dooms the ongoing efforts for economic development to failure. All attempts to solve problems economic growth developing countries are themselves doomed to failure. The solution of the issue is possible only within the framework of the world economy, in which each country will find its own food in the MRI system.
What population size should be considered optimal from an economic point of view, and what are the criteria for such optimality? Since the per capita income depends on the population, the optimal amount is the amount that maximizes per capita income .
Human resources and the movement of the population as a whole is engaged demography- a science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological, geographical factors explores patterns occurring in the structure, dynamics, as well as the location and movement of the population. On the basis of this, a population policy is developed, forecast estimates are made of changes in the country's population of the country, region and within the framework of the world economy as a whole.
An integral part of the demographic processes in the global economy are the processes of urbanization . Urbanization - This is a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process occurring on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the growth of cities, especially large ones, the increase specific gravity urban population in the country, region, world.
With a fixed level of technology, land and capital, too small a population does not provide adequate scope either for the maximum effect of the division of labor, or for the full realization of the effect of scale in the production of national industry.
Problems of big cities: a significant geographic mismatch between jobs and the labor force in the suburbs and the city center, which requires the creation of an efficient transport system; environmental pollution.
Fossil resources. Their deposits have a different degree of exploration and a different degree of assessment accuracy. AT foreign countries the following classification applies. According to the degree of exploration, explored reserves are divided into reliable and probable. There is also a category of possible reserves. In general, the study of the bowels is still insufficient. The proportion of proven reserves for certain types of minerals sometimes amounts to several percent of geological reserves. Mineral reserves vary by country.
Influence of the natural resource potential of the state on the development of the national economy and its integration into the IER.
To understand this issue, it is necessary to get acquainted with the essence of the so-called . "Dutch Syndrome". Many countries rich in raw materials are subject to its influence, incl. and Russia. essence "Dutch Syndrome" is that the presence a large number variety of minerals does not at all guarantee prosperity to the country, and under certain conditions even harms its economy, and vice versa. As a rule, a stable inflow of export earnings from the fuel and energy complex or other primary industries (sectors) leads to the fact that the country ceases to pay attention to the development of its manufacturing industry, preferring to purchase imported equipment and finished products.
In Russia, this disease began to develop in the 70s. This was due to a jump in oil prices and the discovery of new oil fields in Western Siberia(Samotlor and others). Soviet industry, during this period, produced mostly non-competitive products. In addition, the USSR had no export orientation and came into contact with the outside world exclusively through the supply of raw materials and fuel. High-tech equipment was purchased for export proceeds, and most of it was not accepted by the economy, because. the system that existed at that time was not focused on innovation. Strange as it may seem, radical reforms only exacerbated the situation. The reformers, guided by the Darwinian principle of natural selection (everything that is viable must survive, and what is not viable must die), pushed domestic economy not to update, but to primitivization. It has become even more focused on fuel and raw material exports.
An example of the opposite approach is the experience Western Europe, Japan, USA and Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs). The first three, faced with a fuel and raw material crisis in the 70s, concentrated on the development of energy-saving technologies and reduced energy consumption by 30% over 30 years. The second (NIS) took advantage of the transfer of labor-intensive industries from developed countries to developing countries, which began in the 60s, and began to fill a niche in the market for consumer goods and household appliances.
The main difference between the experience of the raw-material countries of Southeast Asia and Russia is that they, albeit with a twenty-year delay, nevertheless placed emphasis on the development of the manufacturing industry.
Thus it is possible to do conclusion, that the presence of minerals is an important condition for the country's integration into the IER, however, if the stake is placed only on them, this inevitably leads to a weakening of the country's position in terms of the competitiveness of its exports, because. stable income can only be provided export of manufactured products . The experience of the countries of Southeast Asia shows that economic success can also be associated with the quality of the labor force. Confucianism left the most important qualities to these countries: discipline, learning, diligence, patriotism.
3. Classification of countries according to the level of socio-economic development
Not all countries (and there are about two hundred of them) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of their level of development and socio-economic organization of production and the complex structure of the world economy, the center and the periphery are quite clearly visible.
The center is a relatively small group of industrialized countries (24 states), which account for almost 55% of world GDP and 71% of world exports.
The periphery includes mainly developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be distinguished:
* the multi-structural nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations and non-economic levers of organizing the economy;
* low level of development productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
* raw material specialization.
NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES - a group of developing countries that have reached, by the end of the 20th century. a significant economic upsurge, which, in terms of basic socio-economic indicators, approached economically developed countries, such as Brazil, South Korea, Taiwan, etc.
A country's activity in world trade is measured using indicators such as:
a) export quota, i.e. the ratio of the volume of exported goods and services to GDP/GNP; at the industry level, this is the share of all goods and services exported by the industry in their total volume;
b) import quota- an indicator that characterizes the volume of imports of a certain product, established in accordance with the needs for it and the volumes of its own production. It is the ratio of a country's gross imports to its GDP. It shows how much imports make up of GDP;
in) foreign trade quota is the ratio of a country's foreign trade turnover to its GDP. It shows the total volume of external trade turnover of a given country with a partner country or with the entire world community, i.e. serves to measure the level of development of foreign economic relations of a given country.
b) export structure, those. the ratio or specific gravity of exported goods by type and degree of their processing. The structure of exports makes it possible to highlight the raw material or machine-technical orientation of exports, the country's role in international industry specialization;
in) import structure, the ratio of volumes of raw materials imported into the country and finished products. This indicator most clearly shows the dependence of the country's economy on the external market and the level of development of the sectors of the national economy;
d) the comparative ratio of the country's share in world production of GDP / GNP and its share in world trade. So, if the country's share in the world production of any type of product is 10%, and its share in world trade in this product is 1-2%, then this means that the goods produced do not correspond to the world quality level as a result of the low development of this industry.
4. The international division of labor and its significance for the development of the world economy
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR - the specialization of countries in the production of certain types of goods, for the manufacture of which the country has cheaper resources and preferable conditions in comparison with other countries. With such specialization, the needs of countries are satisfied not only by their own production, but also through international trade. This is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain goods and services in order to sell them in other countries.
MRI is a system or method of organizing interdependent production, in which enterprises different countries specialize in the manufacture of certain goods and services, and then exchange them.
The first factor has to do with natural benefits. These include reserves of natural resources, specific climatic conditions.
Other factors are related to acquired benefits. Thus, an excess of machinery and equipment relative to other resources stimulates specialization in the production of capital-intensive products. Countries that invest heavily in public education and knowledge production gain a comparative advantage in the production of high-tech and knowledge-intensive products.
The main motive for MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of social and economic differences, is their desire for economic benefits.
Intra-industry, which expresses the concentration of efforts of enterprises from different countries that are part of an industry on the production of certain items and the exchange of these items between them.
Within its framework, it is necessary to distinguish between single-species, multi-species and all-species subject intra-industry specialization.
Intersectoral, which means the division of labor between different branches of the same kind of production (industry, agriculture, etc.).
Intergeneric, this is the division of labor between the types of production - industry and agriculture, industry and construction, etc. national economic I in its economic content, it corresponds to the interregional form of the division of labor within the country and represents the division of activities between countries on the scale of their complete national economies.
5. The process of internationalization of the modern world economy
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE ECONOMY -- the formation and development of economic ties with other countries; processes of economic convergence, manifested in the growth of international trade and other forms of international economic cooperation, the growth of intercountry financial flows, labor force migration. There are internationalization of production, capital, trade, science. One of the important forms of internationalization of the economy is the emergence and development of transnational corporations. The economic basis of the modern world economy is the internationalization of production - the development of such organizational and economic forms that link the production of some countries with the consumption of its results in others.
Internationalization economic activity -- this is the strengthening of the interconnection and interdependence of the economies of individual countries, the influence of international economic relations on national economies, the participation of countries in the world economy.
In its development, the internationalization of the economy has passed a series of stages. Initially, it was an international economic cooperation: it affected, first of all, the sphere of circulation and was associated with the emergence of international trade (late XVIII - early XX century). At the end of the 19th century, the international movement of capital is gaining momentum. International economic cooperation means the development of stable economic ties between countries and peoples, the expansion of the reproduction process beyond national borders.
The next stage was international economic integration, objectively due to the deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of capital, the global nature of scientific and technological progress and the increase in the degree of openness of national economies and freedom of trade.Integration translated from Latin (integratio) means the connection of individual parts into a common, whole, united.
International economic integration-- rapprochement and mutual adaptation of national economies, their inclusion in a single reproductive process on an international scale. This is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to rapprochement economic mechanisms, which takes the form of interstate agreements and is coordinated by interstate bodies.
Economic integration, in particular, is expressed in :
Cooperation between the national economies of different countries and their complete or partial unification;
Elimination of barriers in the movement of goods, services, capital, labor between these countries;
Convergence of the markets of each of the individual countries in order to form one single (common) market;
Blurring the differences between economic entities belonging to different states;
The absence of any form of discrimination against foreign partners in each of the national economies, etc.
By the end XX in. practically all civilized countries participate in various international economic organizations. For example, by 1996, 183 countries were members of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), 180 states were members World Bank(WB), about 150 countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), over 100 countries are members of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs. It is important to note that international law does not prevent the simultaneous participation of any country in several international economic organizations.
Although practically all states of the globe take part in the world integration process, the degree of participation of each of them in this process is not the same. Some of them are at the lowest stages of economic integration, while others, having reached the highest limits of international economic relations today, are expanding interstate cooperation to the level of military and political spheres.
Integration prerequisites are as follows:
*Proximity of levels of economic development and degree of market maturity of integrating countries
*The geographical proximity of the integrating countries, the presence in most cases of a common border and historically established economic ties.
*The commonality of economic and other problems facing countries in the field of development, financing, economic regulation, political cooperation, etc.
*demo effect.
*"Domino effect".
Goals of integration
*Taking advantage of economies of scale .
*Creation of a favorable foreign policy environment .
*Solving the problems of trade policy.
*Promoting structural adjustment economy .
*Support for young national industries .
Stages of integration
On the first level , when the countries are just taking the first steps towards mutual rapprochement, they conclude preferential trade agreements (Table 12.1). Such agreements can be signed either on a bilateral basis between individual states, or between an already existing integration group and a separate country or group of countries. According to them, countries provide more favorable treatment to each other than they provide to third countries.
On the second level integration countries are moving to creationfree trade zones , which no longer provides for a simple reduction, but the complete abolition of customs tariffs in mutual trade while maintaining national customs tariffs in relations with third countries.
Third level integration linked to education customs union (TS)-- the agreed cancellation by the group of national customs tariffs and the introduction of a common customs tariff and a unified system of non-tariff regulation of trade in relation to third countries. The customs union provides for duty-free intra-integration trade in goods and services and complete freedom of their movement within the region. Usually, a customs union requires the creation of an already more developed system of interstate bodies coordinating the implementation of a coordinated foreign trade policy. Most often they take the form of periodic meetings of ministers leading the relevant departments, which in their work rely on a permanent interstate secretariat.
When the integration process reaches fourth level -- common market (OR) -- integrating countries agree on the freedom of movement not only of goods and services, but also of factors of production - capital and labor.
Finally, on the fifth the highest level of integration turns into economic union (ES), which, along with the common customs tariff and freedom of movement of goods and factors of production, also provides for the coordination of macroeconomic policy and the unification of legislation in key areas - currency, budget, and money. At this stage, there is a need for bodies endowed not only with the ability to coordinate actions and monitor economic development, but also to make operational decisions on behalf of the group as a whole. Governments agree to give up part of their functions and thereby concede part of state sovereignty in favor of supranational bodies. Such interstate bodies with supranational functions are empowered to make decisions on matters relating to the organization without the consent of the governments of the member countries. Within the EU, this is the EU Commission.
It is fundamentally possible that there is sixth level integration --political union (PU) , which would provide for the transfer by national governments of most of their functions in relations with third countries to supranational bodies.
9.Globalization of the world economy
ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION - strengthening of interconnections, interactions and interdependence of economies, economic systems of different countries of the world; The globalization of the world economy can also be characterized as an increase in interdependence and mutual influence various areas and processes of the world economy, which is expressed in the gradual transformation of the world economy into a single market for goods, services, capital, labor and knowledge.
The process of globalization covers different areas of the world economy, namely:
external, international, world trade in goods, services, technologies, objects intellectual property;
international movement of factors of production (labor, capital, information);
international financial and credit and currency operations(gratuitous financing and assistance, credits and loans of subjects of international economic relations, operations with securities, special financial arrangements and instruments, currency transactions);
· production, scientific and technical, technological, engineering and information cooperation.
Economic globalization is the process of accumulation of structural shifts and the gradual formation of an organically integral world economy
The main prerequisites (driving forces) that determine the process of globalization are:
1. Production, scientific, technical and technological:
a sharp increase in the scale of production;
· the rapid dissemination of knowledge as a result of scientific or other types of intellectual interchange;
2. Organizational:
· international forms implementation of production and economic activities (TNCs): organizational forms, the scope of which go beyond national boundaries, acquire an international character, contributing to the formation of a single market space;
· exit of non-governmental organizations to the multinational or world level. A new global role began to be played by such international organizations as the UN, the IMF, The World Bank, WTO, etc.;
3. Economic:
· the introduction by international economic organizations of uniform criteria for macroeconomic policy, the unification of requirements for tax, regional, agrarian, antimonopoly policy, employment policy, etc.;
· Strengthening the trend towards unification and standardization. 4. Informational:
a radical change in the means of business communication, the exchange of industrial, scientific, technical, economic, financial information
· the formation of systems that allow one center to manage production located in different countries, creating opportunities for prompt, timely and effective solution of production, scientific, technical, commercial problems no worse than within individual countries.
5. Political:
· weakening the rigidity of state borders, facilitating the freedom of movement of citizens, goods and services, capital;
· the end of the Cold War, overcoming political differences between East and West.
6. Social and cultural:
· weakening the role of habits and traditions, social ties and customs, overcoming national limitations, which increases the mobility of people in territorial, spiritual and psychological terms, promotes international migration;
Manifestation of the trend towards the formation of globalized "homogeneous" means mass media, art, pop culture.
Overcoming boundaries in education through the development of distance learning;
Globalization processes are most often welcomed in developed countries and raise serious concerns about developing world. The degree of positive impact of globalization processes on the economy of individual countries depends on the place they occupy in the world economy; in fact, rich countries or individuals receive the bulk of the benefits.
The unfair distribution of the benefits of globalization gives rise to the threat of conflicts at the regional, national and international levels.
As problems that can potentially cause negative consequences from globalization processes in all countries, we can name:
deindustrialization of the economy,
Attempts to undermine national sovereignty, i.e. transfer of control over the economy of individual countries from sovereign governments to other hands, including the most powerful states, multinational or global corporations and international organizations.
Rising unemployment.
Potential global instability due to the interdependence of national economies at the global level.
10. Subjects of world economic relations
The subjects of world economic relations are private (individual) persons and organizations (legal entities) engaged in the implementation of international economic transactions.
From the standpoint of the national economy, the subjects are divided into residents and non-residents.
Residents are business entities permanently located on the territory of a given country, regardless of their national (state) affiliation.
Non-residents - economic entities permanently located in the territory foreign state, even if they are citizens of this country, but permanently residing abroad, or affiliates of economic units of this country located outside it.
In addition to organizations directly involved in foreign economic activity, supranational international institutions are beginning to play an increasingly active role in the global economy. They are represented by international economic institutions engaged in organizing and coordinating world economic relations. The tasks of these organizations are the creation of "rules of the game" for the normal functioning of the world economy and control over practical implementation world economic relations.
A priority international law in operations on the world market does not mean the complete internationalization of the foreign economic activity of the state and the replacement of its foreign economic institutions by the activities of international economic organizations.
The duty of any state is to defend national economic interests, including through foreign economic activity. Therefore, in modern conditions, the state itself determines its foreign economic policy. To implement it, each country develops its own national legislation on foreign economic activity. For example, for Russia, the fundamental ones are federal laws"On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities"). "On foreign investment on the territory of the Russian Federation, etc.
Direct regulation of foreign economic activity in each country is carried out by special institutions. In Russia, such institutions include: the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, the Ministry for Cooperation with the CIS, the Customs Committee, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Vneshtorgbank, etc.
These state organizations register foreign institutional units in the country, regulate exports and imports through the issuance of licenses, quotas and the establishment of customs tariffs, facilitate the signing of interstate agreements, the promotion of domestic residents in economic unions and in the world economy as a whole.
The states participating in the world economic process, organizing and regulating international economic relations directly within the country, can also influence world economic relations as a whole. This kind of influence is realized in many ways, primarily by using the right of the participants in one or another international economic organization to develop and correct the rules of the intra-union “game”.
In addition, it should be noted that the states participating in the world economic process, especially the most economically developed and wealthy, have both direct and indirect opportunities to influence world economic relations, regulating them in their national interests.
Direct Regulator is protectionism, with the help of which this or that state or union, in its own interests, provides advantages in the export and import of goods, services and capital.
Indirect regulation states can carry out world economic relations through their private firms (especially banks) and transnational companies (TNCs).
Thus, modern states, organizing their national economy for broad participation in the world economic process, at the same time actively organize and regulate the entire complex of world economic relations. This process allows countries not only to defend their economic interests in the international arena, but at the same time to improve and develop the world economy and international economic relations.
11. Classical theories of world trade.
Mercantilists, in fact, proposed the enrichment of some countries at the expense of others, but their merit lies in the fact that they first drew attention to the problems of foreign trade, emphasized its importance for the economic development of countries, described and justified a certain ratio of export and import costs, i.e. . laid the foundation for the balance of payments.
Adam Smith noted that the wealth of a nation depends not so much on the amount of gold it accumulates, but on its ability to produce final goods and leave. He also developed the first classical theory of foreign trade - theory of absolutebenefits.
ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE - the possibility of the state, region, company, arising as a result of geographical location, successful placement, resource potential, other favorable conditions, to produce goods with minimal production and distribution costs in comparison with other countries, regions, firms that produce the same or similar goods. Thanks to this advantage, it is possible to sell your product on the market at a lower price and bypass competitors. A. Smith argued that those countries that actively participate in the international division of labor will receive the greatest benefit. A country that has certain advantages in the production of a product should specialize in its release for delivery to other countries.
Theory of Absolute Advantage -- Countries export those goods that they produce at lower cost (in which they have an absolute advantage) and import those goods that other countries produce at lower cost (in which their trading partners have the advantage).
This statement of A. Smith was supplemented by David Ricardo, creating theory of comparative benefits.
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES - lower costs of one producer compared to the costs of another, which allows you to divide the output between them in favor of the first producer to obtain greater returns, benefits. Comparative advantages are most characteristic of different countries and are manifested in international trade.
Theorycomparativebenefits -- the producers of a country specialize in the production of those goods which they can produce at a relatively lower cost than in other countries, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries, regardless of whether production in one of them is absolutely more efficient than in the other.
Ricardo proved that foreign trade brings additional benefits even to countries with highly efficient economies.
in the 20-30s of our century to the creation Heckscher's theoriesOlina.
Heckscher--Ohlin theorem Each country exports those factor-intensive goods for the production of which it has a relatively surplus of factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative shortage of factors of production.
In this theory, the factors that determine the international division of labor are already associated not only with the natural conditions of production in the country, but with the realities that have arisen in the process of development of production. The theory proceeded from the fact that historical and natural conditions The development of individual countries predetermined the unevenness in providing them with labor resources and capital. Therefore, different factor intensity and factor saturation determines the specialization of the country in the production of certain goods.
Factor intensity is the ratio of the costs of various factors of production for the production of a particular product
Factor saturation is the relative endowment of the country with factors of production .
Factor price equalization theorem(Heckscher--Ohlin--Samuelson theorem) - international trade leads to the equalization of absolute and relative prices for homogeneous factors of production in trading countries
In 1947, the American economist Wassily Leontiev, studying the structure of US exports and imports, found that more labor-intensive goods were exported and capital-intensive goods were imported. V. Leontiev's research showed the opposite, and his result became known as Leontief's paradox.
Leontief's paradox-- Heckscher-Ohlin's theory of the ratio of factors of production is not confirmed in practice: labor-surplus countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-surplus countries export labour-intensive ones.
An attempt to take into account the influence of the scientific and technological revolution in international trade led to the creation neotechnological theories foreign trade. Their supporters try to explain the emergence of foreign trade relations not by the availability of factors of production, as neoclassicists did, but by the costs of research and development, the level of average wages and the proportion of skilled labor. This school explains the emergence of advantages by a monopoly on individual discoveries and new technologies, which makes it possible to dominate both the production of these goods and their sale on the world market until these technologies are mastered by other countries.
technology gap theory, the foundations of which were laid by the English economist M. Posner in the early 60s. Posner suggested that if one of the developed countries, as a result of some discovery, has a fundamentally new technology or a new product, then this product will be in demand even in countries with the same resource endowment. Then, as a result of the predominant position of one country, a technological gap arises between countries.
This model was developed by another American economist, Raymond Vernon, who in 1966 published an article describing the product life cycle model, which can be considered both as an independent theory of international trade and as a theory that develops the theory of comparative endowment with factors of production. But, unlike her, she explores the comparative advantage of countries not static but dynamic.
International trade is based on differences in relative prices of goods that arise due to different endowments of countries with specific factors of production, with factors specific to the export sector developing, and factors specific to the sector competing with imports decreasing.
Theory of the firm associated with the strengthening of the role of individual firms and corporations in international trade. AT Ultimately, it is not the nation that always gets comparative advantage, but the individual firm that exports the product. In the course of research, it turned out that technologically complex products are created by a separate company based on the needs and demand that exist within the country. Only after the expansion of production and saturation of the domestic market, the firm can enter the foreign market. But in order to sell your products, you need to find a buyer country, in which the demand structure in the domestic market would be as close as possible to the demand structure of the exporting country. This explains the possibility of trade transactions between countries at the same level of economic development, in particular between developed industrial countries. This position was first substantiated by the American economist E. Linder.
A kind of generalization modern development theories of foreign trade is theory of international competitiveness of the nation, developed by the American researcher M. Porter. He came to the conclusion that the place of each country and its specific producers in the world market depends on four main conditions: the quantity and quality of various factors of production, demand conditions in the domestic market, the presence of related and service industries, the strategy of the firm and internal competition.
12. Modern theories of international trade
All theories of international trade in one way or another pay attention to the formation of equilibrium prices in the world market and the distribution of income.
Neoclassical theories considered the problem of income as one of the key ones. Theory Heckscher - Olina argued that the owners of relatively excess factors of production receive additional profits from foreign trade, while the owners of relatively insufficient factors lose.
The theory of specific factors of production substantiates the proposition on the growth of income of the owner of a specific factor used in export productions, and, accordingly, on the reduction in income of the owners of a specific factor used in industries. competing with imports.
In the process of trade between countries, prices for goods sold and bought can change. How will the income of the owners of factors of production change in this case? The answer to this question was given in a study by American economists P. Samuelson and F. Stolper. They suggested that in a particular country two types of goods are produced: one is labor intensive, and the other requires a large amount of land to produce.
Stolper -- Samuelson theorem - as a result of rising prices in the world market, the prices of the factor of production that is relatively more intensively used in the production of the first good rise, and the prices of the factor of production that are used relatively intensively in the second production decrease. Moreover, as a rule, the increase or decrease in the price of factors of production occurs to a greater extent than the change in the prices of goods.
English economist T.M. Rybchinsky drew attention to the fact that fast development some industries often leads to a reduction in production in others. In his work, he proceeded from the same conditions as Stolper and Samuelson, except for one thing: he considered the prices of goods to be unchanged.
Rybchinsky's theorem- An increasing supply of one of the factors of production leads to a disproportionately greater percentage increase in production and income in the industry for which this factor is used relatively more intensively, and to a decrease in production and income in the industry in which this factor is used relatively less intensively. From the point of view of international trade, Rybchinsky's theorem says that the expansion of export production due to the increase in supply of a relatively intensive factor will lead to a reduction in other industries, which will force the country to increase imports of goods that are in short supply. An increase in the supply of factors for the development of other industries will accelerate their development and reduce imports.
The distribution of benefits from foreign trade between individual countries depends largely on how domestic prices change under the influence of foreign trade. Of the two countries, the country where prices have changed the most usually wins. This so-called benefit distribution rule, which says that the benefits of foreign trade are distributed in direct proportion to price changes in both countries.
13. Supply and demand in international trade
In order for a country to trade on the world market, it must have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand on the world market, currency funds or other means of payment for imports, as well as a developed foreign trade infrastructure- vehicles, warehouses, means of communication, etc. Settlements for foreign trade operations are made banking organizations, and the country's insurance business provides transportation and cargo insurance.
Two counter flows of goods and services form the exports and imports of each country Export- is the sale and export of goods abroad, import -- is the purchase and importation of goods from abroad. Difference valuations export and import forms trade balance, and the sum of their estimates is foreign trade turnover.
At the lowest level of the market there is a trade in ferrous metallurgy products, construction materials, textiles, garments, footwear and other products light industry. On the Middle level trade in machine tools vehicles, rubber and plastic products, products of basic chemistry and woodworking. On the highest level aerospace equipment, automated office equipment, information technology, electronics, pharmaceutical products, precision and measuring instruments, electrical equipment are sold. The markets of the last level are the most promising and develop at a much faster pace than other markets.
Quality goods are always more expensive and available only to countries with high per capita incomes. Lower quality goods are bought by countries with low per capita income. This predetermines the fact that countries with the same incomes have approximately the same structure of demand for finished products, and coinciding demand predetermines the most intensive exchange of finished goods between these countries.
14. Types of foreign trade policy
Foreign trade policy
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal state intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand.
Protectionism - public policy protection of the domestic market from foreign competition through the use of tariff and non-tariff instruments of trade policy. This is the theory and practice of regulating foreign trade, aimed at protecting the subjects of the national economy from foreign competition.
The development of protectionist tendencies makes it possible to single out several forms of protectionism:
selective - directed against individual countries or individual goods;
sectoral - protects certain sectors, primarily agriculture, within the framework of agrarian protectionism;
collective - carried out by associations of countries in relation to countries that are not members of them;
hidden - carried out by methods of domestic economic policy.
Protectionism as a theory of foreign economic behavior was established in XIX in. in competition with free trade (the theory and practice of free trade). The results of free trade between countries with different levels of economic development were especially fiercely criticized by supporters of protectionism. It was believed that the developed countries were primarily interested in free trade, but it hindered the creation of a national industry in relatively backward states.
In a developing national economy, protectionist measures are needed for protecting only new industries that have emerged as a result of scientific and technological progress from the competition of efficient foreign firms that have been operating on the world market for quite a long time. It was under the protection of protectionism that the formation and development of the national economy of modern developed countries took place.
During periods of serious aggravation of relations between states and increased international tension, protectionist measures are used to preserve the security of the state, which is facilitated by the production on its territory of all necessary, vital products.
Despite the clearly positive influence of protectionist measures on the development of the national economy and international trade, this method of regulating foreign trade relations has its opponents. As a rule, they distinguish the following arguments against protectionism.
protectionism is not beneficial from the point of view of national production, because it destroys the spirit of competition, develops privileges, entails the sclerosis of the economy;
he inflicts damage to the interests of the consumer, because under conditions of customs bans, the selling prices of protected goods are rising. The consumer suffers from this;
he is a threat to international peace, because ignites inter-ethnic rivalry, weakens the bonds of interdependence between countries, the fruitful atmosphere of MRI and economic cooperation
protectionism is characterized by a certain illogicality - in pursuit of the goal of achieving a positive trade balance, protectionism restrains import operations, international partners also begin to act, as a result of which the volume of export operations is curtailed. This leads not to a positive balance, but to an imbalance.
under protectionism sectors of the national economy, protected by its barriers, lose incentives for development, as the mechanisms of competition fade, and the desire for progress and innovation is destroyed by the opportunities to maintain the achieved incomes and monopoly privileges.
protectionism has a certain multiplier effect - the technological interconnection between industries leads to the fact that when protectionist protection is introduced for some industries of the technological chain, it is immediately required by industries technologically related to the protected ones.
under protectionism the national economy canetake full advantage of international specialization-- Restrictions on cheaper imported goods prevent them from being brought into the country.
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal state intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand. In this case, the latter is carried out and developed in accordance with the international division of labor and the modern version of the theory of comparative advantage. It is believed that such a policy leads to the most efficient distribution of resources on a global scale and to the maximization of world income. Despite the fact that the theory of free trade is quite convincing and attracts with many advantages, the policy of non-intervention of the state in international trade practiced very carefully
Positive aspects are already visible in the criticism of protectionism. Freedom of trade:
allows the distribution of products in accordance with the law of comparative costs of production and entails an international specialization beneficial to all;
facilitates the development of competition and maintains the spirit of innovation not only among domestic producers, but also in relations with other countries;
allows you to expand the market. It leads to the development of mass production, and consequently to lower prices as a result of falling production costs, which is beneficial for the consumer. In addition, the risk of shortages associated with the tight localization of production and markets is reduced.
15. Foreign trade policy of states, its economic instruments
Foreign trade policy is a set of measures used by the state to regulate trade relations and relations with other countries. Although these measures are aimed at trade, they cannot but affect the direct producers and consumers within the country.
The world economy is the economy of the countries of the world community, considered taking into account intercountry economic relationships and interactions. An important component of the world economy is the world market - a system of exchanges of goods and services.
term paper, added 12/03/2010
The essence of the concept of "world economy". Manifestation international relations in the process of carrying out trade, financial and credit and other foreign economic operations. Differences between internal and external economic relations. Integration processes.
abstract, added 07/31/2011
The world economy as a set of national economies of individual states and a complex dynamic system. Laws of market economy, laws of the international division of labor. The structure of the world economy, the subjects of world economic relations.
control work, added 11/10/2009
World economy: concept, structure, stages of formation. Subjects of the economy. general characteristics state of the art. Globalization Indicators. Classification of national economies. Market economy models. Technology trade. commodity markets.
tutorial, added 02/12/2009
The world economy, or the world economy, is a set of national economies that are in constant dynamics. The subject of the world economy is the world community. International mobility of factors of production. The structure of the world economy.
test, added 08/24/2010
General characteristics of the world economy, its dynamics and sectoral structure. The state as the main subject of the world economy. Analysis state regulation foreign economic activity. Center and periphery of a single world economy.
abstract, added 05/23/2014
World economy, world market. International division of labor. Groups of countries in the world economy. International economic integration. International economic relations. Interstate regulation of international economic relations. Export of capital.
tutorial, added 03/16/2007
The essence of the concept of "world economy", the features and role of the level of economic development of individual countries. The structure of the world economy, directions and forms of international economic relations. Subjects of world economic relations and integration processes.
control work, added 11/10/2010
World economy: essence, main regularities and tendencies of its development at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. Subjects of the modern world economy. Global problems in the global economy. Natural resource potential. international movement capitals.
course of lectures, added 02/13/2011
World economy: concept, structure, subjects, stages and trends of development. Classification of factors of production by origin and specialization. International division of labor and the main stages of the world economy. Types of countries by economic potential.
2nd floor 20th century - discussion of the problems of the foundations and prerequisites of scientific knowledge made it possible to expand the problems of the structure of scientific knowledge - the metatheoretical foundations of science, which are implicit. Polanyi is the concept of implicit background knowledge.
As the foundations of science - various forms of axiological and worldview structures.
FUNCTIONS - 1) set strategic orientations for scientific knowledge,
2) largely ensure the inclusion of its results in the culture of the corresponding historical era.
BASIC FORMS of metatheoretical foundations of science:
· outlook
Philosophical principles, paradigms and categories;
general scientific methodological regulations,
a scientific picture of the world,
different models of science development,
style of scientific thinking, etc.
The ideological function of philosophy is considered one of the most important. It manifests the ability of philosophy to act as the basis of a worldview, which is, at the theoretical level, a holistic, stable system of views about the world and the laws of its existence, about the phenomena and processes of nature and society that are important for maintaining the life of society and man. The worldview of the individual acts as a set of feelings, knowledge and beliefs. A special role in the worldview of a human scientist is played by ideas about the principles that determine his attitude to the world, society and himself. The ideological attitudes of the scientist are of particular importance in the study of social and humanitarian processes. This can be clearly seen in the example of the economy.
Philosophical problems of economics are currently becoming particularly relevant, because. in modern world global changes are taking place in the field of the world economy, geopolitics and the socio-spiritual life of people.
The economic sphere is a complex multifaceted system. It is part of the wider system of society as a whole. The economy is an objective reality with which we constantly deal in everyday life, it is an indispensable attribute of our being. As Hegel noted, it is the economy that is the foundation of civil society. Different sides economic life studied by many sciences. Among them, an important place is occupied by economic theory, economic psychology, and the philosophy of economics.
Features of socio-economic knowledge:
1. The complexity of the object - the diversity and dynamism of economic phenomena
2. Coincidence of object and subject in cognition (is objectivity possible?)
3. The influence of the personal subjective factor in cognition (experience, etc.)
4. Situational economy. knowledge
5. Limitation of the experiment as a method
The ideological factors of the researcher, therefore, play an important role in the study of eq. Processes. Philosophy has a decisive influence on the formation of the worldview foundations of a scientist's thinking.
The philosophy of economics is aimed at comprehending the foundations of economic life, relying on philosophical categories and principles, it reveals the essential aspects of economic phenomena and processes.
The philosophy of economics is a field of knowledge that has found itself in a difficult position in the modern world. Having become pragmatic, technological - in accordance with the spirit of the times - economic science claims the status of an exact discipline, which, in fact, is not. There is a noticeable narrowing of its subject field, at a time when, on the contrary, at the modern turning point in history, a broader humanitarian view of the economy as a cultural phenomenon is needed. Discussion required today economic problems society in intensive interaction with philosophical and cultural approaches.
The philosophical point of view involves revealing the essence of human behavior and activity in the economic sphere.
Intensifying scientific efforts in interpreting and solving economic issues especially noticeable in the framework of social philosophy. The philosophy of economics is engaged in the study of general deep processes in the economy, this analysis is carried out on the basis of the achievements of philosophy.
Firstly, we are talking about the philosophical epistemological interpretation of economic knowledge - this is the desire to identify and describe the actual structures of economic knowledge and their adequacy to objective realities.
Secondly, philosophy acts as a methodological basis for considering economic problems. Of fundamental importance here is the knowledge of the laws and categories of dialectics, as well as the use of forms and methods of cognition developed by modern philosophy.
Thirdly, we are talking about the philosophical worldview interpretation of economic knowledge - this is the desire to identify and describe the actually existing structures of economic knowledge and their adequacy to the value orientations of a specific historical time.
These methods, being applicable in combination with other methods, can help economists in solving complex theoretical and fundamental problems. There is not a single economic theory, the formation of which would have done without the use of philosophical ideas about causality, space, time, etc. Without worldview concepts and principles, the progress of economic science is impossible.
However, philosophical methodology economic research is limited not only by dialectical materialistic approaches, it also has methodological ideas, value-based and cultural orientation (M. Weber), and ethical aspects.
In economics, there are strategies of two research programs - naturalistic and anti-naturalistic. Already in the very construction of an economic theory or an economic mathematical model, it should be taken into account that the economy deals with the phenomena of everyday experience. This should broaden its empirical base. Next comes the stage of theoretical research, where dependencies and concepts known from everyday experience appear. And only after that a more difficult stage begins - the proof of the possibility of using this theory to predict real processes in the economy and its applications.
In the main opposing approaches to each other - spontaneous or regulated economy - one can find orientations towards both naturalism and cultural centrism. It is quite obvious that the concept of spontaneous economic activity creates more prerequisites for substantiating the natural nature of the economic process and applying positivist approaches to its analysis, as well as mathematical models and methods. One can note the influence of G. Spencer on V. Pareto, who proposed the idea of economic equilibrium. The idea of economic equilibrium was supported by a number of other researchers who turned to the analysis economic cycles. This created opportunities for mathematical modeling in the economy (P. Samuelson, V. Leontiev).
Along with these concepts, among the theories of unmanaged economy received distribution of marginalism coming from the subjective theory of values and psychologism. Marginalists (F. Wieser, E. Böhm-Beverk and others) replaced the labor theory of value of classical bourgeois political economy, which, from their point of view, does not correspond to the most optimal modes of operation of the economic system, with the theory of marginal utility and productivity, designed to rationalize the subjective aspirations of trading partners and any other agents of economic relations. They assumed that the entrepreneur seeks to maximize his income, and the buyer - to acquire the most useful thing. These motives of the agents of economic relations seemed so obvious to the marginalists that their identification did not require any analysis. Therefore, in these subjectivist concepts, the method of understanding is not used in any developed form.
In view of the abstract interpretation of the interests of individuals, as always, unchanged, marginalists remain within the framework of a naturalistic research program. Since the human factor is always, one way or another, taken into account by social science, those economic concepts that proceed from the historically and psychologically variable nature of the subject's participation in the process under consideration should be classified as cultural-centric. In this case, it becomes necessary to understand the motives, to identify the historical context of the activity.
However, the above condition for classifying concepts as cultural-centric is necessary, but not sufficient. Thus, in the theories that allow state intervention in the economy, the role of a person in the very essence of these concepts is presented to a greater extent. But even here there are naturalistic tendencies. For example, John. Keynes is looking for an explanation of the unevenness of the economic process in the variability of the psychological motives of the entrepreneur and the buyer. And yet, with all this variability, he finds a “basic psychological law”: people increase their consumption with income growth, but not in direct proportion to income growth. Therefore, demand depends not so much on solvency as on the psychological propensity to consume and save, the ratio of which is a variable. Keynes's economic concept is aimed at eliminating this volatility through measures of state-monopoly regulation (tax, inflationary policy, subsidizing entrepreneurs from the state budget, etc.). In the course of state intervention, the economy undergoes a kind of naturalization by maintaining the proper quantitative ratios of a constant set of factors affecting reproduction.
Along with this naturalistic, albeit artificially constructed, economic model, in the theories of the state-regulated capitalist economy, there are (and predominate) cultural-centric approaches originating in the historical school of M. Weber, W. Sombart, G. Schmoller.
G. Schmoller set himself the task of analyzing the changing modes of activity of agents of economic relations, taking into account a combination of psychological, geographical, economic and other factors. Non-economic aspects of economic activity were the main subject of his interests. Economic changes were considered by him as a consequence of changes in those contents of mental life that a person manifests in the economy.
W. Sombart denied economic laws and made the nature of economic activity and institutions dependent on place and time. Exploring the cultural paradigms of the economy, he tried to discover the motives for economic activity in any society, interpreting capitalism as a universal phenomenon. economic system, according to Sombart, is the embodiment of the economic spirit, which has a cultural and creative role. Therefore, economic activity must not only be studied, but understood.
M. Weber, in his more rationalistic theory of economy, sought to turn political economy into a rigorous science, capable of understanding at the same time. His "ideal type" turns into a method of discovering the unique aspects inherent in a particular historical situation. By introducing "relevant understanding", Weber actually takes a step towards the extension of this method to the natural sciences, which could be fully extended with the application of the culture-centric research program to the natural sciences. In economics, Weber is interested in the institutional aspects of economic activity, the connection between religion, sociology and economics. The basis of the development of capitalism, according to the scientist, is the development of the "spirit of capitalism", which is influenced by religious ideas.
It should be noted that the basis of any economic research and economics is labor productivity, as an indicator of the efficiency of the use of labor resources (labor factor), measured either by the quantity of products in physical or monetary terms produced by one worker for a certain, fixed time (hour, day, month, year); - or the amount of time spent on the production of a unit of marketable output. In this regard, it is possible to distinguish various worldview directions:
Liberalism
From the very beginning, this direction declared itself as a manifestation of bourgeois social thought. The ideas of liberalism were substantiated in the XVII-XVIII centuries. English philosopher J. Locke and English economist A. Smith. Huge contribution prominent Russian thinkers, specialists in the field of philosophy, history, political science and law B.N. Chicherin, N.M. Korkunov. Representatives of liberalism, comprehending society, its economic, political and spiritual life, the activities of its legal institutions (we are talking at the same time about the main methodological approaches to the study of social phenomena, including economic, political, etc.), used certain criteria, mainly of which was (and is) the idea of human freedom1 - first of all, the freedom of expression by each individual of his views and interests, as well as the freedom of his activities and other civil liberties associated with it. The subject of the study is the state of society in terms of the presence or absence of certain economic, political and civil freedoms in it and finding ways for their most complete implementation.
In this regard, theorists of liberalism solve the following problems:
Freedom of the individual in society and his personal responsibility for his actions and the results of his activities;
The role of private property as the economic basis for individual freedom and the functioning of the economy;
Conditions for free enterprise and free market relations.
Since the time of A. Smith, liberals have traditionally assigned the role of a "night watchman" to the state, protecting the property of citizens, their rights, order in the country and protecting it from external encroachments.
Monetarist theory.
It was created by representatives of the so-called Chicago School, headed by the prominent modern economist Milton Friedman. This theory is theoretically and methodologically based on the idea of a free market and non-intervention of the state in the development of the economy. At the same time, M. Friedman and his followers substantiate the idea of the paramount role monetary circulation and mainly monetary transactions in the functioning of a market economy. This will be discussed in more detail below. We only note that the theory of monetarism, based on the ideas of self-organization and self-regulation economic processes and contributing to their study, proves the relevance of the fundamental ideas of liberalism in the study of modern economic phenomena and processes.
Conservatism
This direction of social thought was formed as a reaction to liberal theory and ideology. His predecessors - the English thinkers E. Burke and T. Carlyle, as well as the French thinkers J. de Maistre and L. de Bonald - countered the ideas of bourgeois individualism with the ideas of preserving and developing society as total, i.e. holistic education. The same ideas were substantiated by representatives of Russian conservatism K.N. Leontiev and K.P. Pobedonostsev and others. In solving the problems of interaction between society and the individual, which they interpreted as the interaction of the whole and the part, they preferred society as an integral organism in which each person must have the necessary conditions for his existence and development. At the same time, it was pointed out that the individuals themselves bear obligations to society, aimed at preserving and strengthening it for the common good.
Any social phenomena (spiritual, political, economic, etc.) were considered by them in relation to society as an integral social and natural organism. In their opinion, the freedom of the individual, her entrepreneurial activity, as well as freedom of speech and other civil liberties, should be supported only if they do not harm society, contribute to its evolution and strengthen it, since these freedoms can be destructive in nature, lead to an unreasonable breakdown of traditional social institutions that have been formed in areas of politics, economics, morality, religion.
One of the most significant manifestations of conservatism in the field of economic research of the XX century. the works of the famous English scientist J.M. Keynes, who declared the end of the liberal doctrine of the spontaneous development of the economy, based on unlimited freedom of enterprise and competition and the denial of any state intervention in the economy, due to the complete theoretical and practical failure of this doctrine.
Social Democratic direction
The theoretical origins of this trend go back partly to Marxism, partly to social reformism, neo-Kantianism and other teachings. Soon after the October (1917) Revolution in Russia, the final break between the Social Democrats and the consistent Marxists took place. Now it is an independent and widespread direction in Europe in theory, ideology and politics. The Social Democrats, having long ago abandoned the idea of abolishing private ownership of the means of production, are now advocating the preservation of state, cooperative and private property in society, i.e. for a mixed economy. They are increasingly inclined to recognize the advantages of the free market, although they do not deny the need for partial state influence on the development of the economy. Here they are unanimous, on the one hand, with modern conservatives, and on the other hand, with modern liberals. For them, the main method of social change is not revolution, but reform. The main goal of the theoretical studies of modern social democrats is to identify and substantiate the possibilities of building a society of democratic socialism.
Marxist direction
The founders of this trend are, as you know, the German thinkers K. Marx and F. Engels. Their prominent adherents, who played a significant role in the spread and further development of Marxism, were A. Bebel (Germany), A. Labriola (Italy), G.V. Plekhanov and V.I. Lenin (Russia), Mao Zedong (China) and others.
The initial theoretical and methodological position of Marxism in the study of the economic, political and other processes taking place in society is the consideration of society itself as a self-developing social system. Each such historically formed system is considered as a socio-economic formation, which, on the one hand, appears as a certain social organism developing on the basis of its own mode of production, and on the other hand, as a qualitatively unique stage of the world historical process. The nature and content of social relations in a given society to a decisive extent determine the nature and content of the socio-economic and political processes taking place in it, their social nature.
The leading role in the system of social relations (economic, political, legal, moral, religious, etc.) is assigned to economic relations, the totality of which is characterized as the economic basis of society, above which rises the political, legal and ideological superstructure, a derivative of the economic basis. As the founders of Marxism emphasized, this does not detract from the importance of political or spiritual phenomena in the life of society (on the contrary, their importance is constantly increasing), but it shows that, in the final analysis, their nature and content are determined by the economic basis of society.
Demography studies the size, territorial distribution and composition of the population, the patterns of their changes based on social, economic, biological and geographical factors, causes and conditions.
home a task demography as a science - the identification and knowledge of demographic laws, patterns, relationships. Among practical tasks There are three main demographics:
1) based on the collection and demographic analysis of information, the study of trends and factors of demographic processes;
2) development of demographic forecasts;
3) development of measures for demographic statistics.
Various research methods are used in demography, among them a descriptive method, statistical and mathematical methods of analysis, an abstract analytical method, a comparative method, analysis and synthesis, generalization, induction and deduction methods, a method of putting forward hypotheses and testing them, extrapolation and modeling, sociological methods studies of demographic behavior, cartographic methods, etc. At the same time, statistical and mathematical methods of analysis occupy the main place in demography.
Among proper demographic methods, most commonly used in demographic scientific and practical work - the cohort method, longitudinal and transverse demographic analysis, the method of potential demography, methods of standardization of demographic coefficients, etc.
Demographic models are widely used in scientific and practical work; demographic forecasting (especially often carried out by the method of shifting by age) is usually an integral part of most works with demographic plots.
Modern demography is a complex science of population (population), or more precisely, it is a whole system of interacting sciences that jointly study the reproduction of the population and individual demographic processes. The internal differentiation of demographics is gradually becoming more complex. Three main criteria are distinguished, on the basis of which internal differentiation in demography is substantiated; at the same time, the allocation of subdisciplines and sections within demography is based on the joint application of all these criteria. Among them:
1) theoretical level of scientific interpretation of observed phenomena;
2) objective-subjective criterion;
3) connection with practice, the degree of focus on solving practical, applied problems.
In demography, as in other sciences, there is a process specializations. Among the branches of demography, for example, demographic statistics, descriptive demography, formal demography, theoretical demography, historical demography, economic demography, social demography and a number of other sections are distinguished.
There are several areas of work in demography: demographic theory, collection of primary data on the population and demographic processes, description of demographic processes, pure - or formal - demography (considers the quantitative correlations of demographic phenomena, processes, structures, changes in the size and composition of the population under their influence), demographic analysis, historical demography, etc. As a result, seven main components in the system of demographic sciences can be distinguished:
1) theoretical demography, history of demography, descriptive demography, economic demography, modeling of socio-demographic processes, i.e. a kind of theoretical foundation of science;
2) sectoral demographic sciences: medical demography, ethnic demography, military demography, political demography, etc.;
3) sources of information and methods: sources of data on the population, methods - statistical, mathematical, sociological, cartographic, etc.;
4) regional demography;
5) applied demographic research;
6) socio-demographic forecasting;
7) theoretical basis demographic policy.
Demography has close relationships with other sciences. Demographics interact especially closely:
1) with socio-economic and historical sciences that study population economics, sociology, social psychology, social and migration policy, population geography, ethnography, etc.;
2) mathematics and statistics (formal demography and statistical demography);
3) biological sciences: population genetics, evolutionary biology, epidemiology, biological prediction of population development, etc. Demography uses methods and draws on the facts established by these sciences. In turn, other sciences use demographic data to better understand their subject of study.
The closest is the connection of demography with history, since it is the consideration of reproduction as a historical process that makes it possible to reveal its social conditioning, dependence on specific socio-economic processes of a particular period of development of society. With the help of ethnography, demography reveals the impact on the processes of reproduction of the population of the characteristics of the culture and life of different peoples. Of the economic sciences most closely connected with demography are those that study employment and relations in the sphere of distribution. Of the sociological sciences, the closest to demography is the sociology of the family. Social psychology helps demography understand the patterns of demographic behavior. Since such behavior is also regulated by legal norms, there are areas in demography related to jurisprudence. Demographic processes usually have significant regional differentiation, and also depend on the types of settlements and settlements. Therefore, demography draws on information and methods of population geography.
Statistical and mathematical methods are extremely important in demography. It is with their help that most of the data on the population is collected, and then these data are checked and corrected (errors are identified, standardization is carried out, etc.). It is no coincidence that demographics first appeared as part of statistics. The main part of the data is provided by demography, population statistics and medical statistics.
Many demographic processes are based on a biological component. This explains the use in demography of the methods and results of studies of genetics, human physiology, psychology, gerontology, anthropology and other biological sciences. The state of people's health, the impact of working and living conditions on morbidity and mortality is studied by the science of social hygiene, which is also associated, therefore, with demography.
But such aspiration alone is not enough for the exchange to take place, there must be prerequisites, or in other words, certain objective circumstances that will allow a person to realize this aspiration in practice. They are also mentioned in the above quote. So from the words of the author it follows that a person who makes bows and arrows is faster than others, it is they who use them in exchange. Such a statement means that A. Smith believed that if a person produces these goods in the same way as everyone else, or more slowly than others, he will not be able to use them for exchange. Since in order to receive more instead of less through exchange, he must offer something more, from the point of view of his partner in the transaction, because he also makes an exchange, and therefore benefits from the same plan. But this is possible only if the thing alienated during the exchange is produced by each of the parties faster than its partner. . Strictly speaking, what matters here is the relative, not the absolute, rate of production of a certain good. So in the above example, it was shown that the exchange can make sense for both parties involved in the transaction, even if one of them, in absolute terms, both products are manufactured faster than the other. The difference in production capabilities necessary for exchange (substitution) is here manifested in the relative rates of production of exchanged products. By the way, this is precisely why less developed countries, lagging behind in terms of labor productivity, can participate in the international division of labor, supplying their products to countries where these products are manufactured at a lower cost of all types of resources. This will be discussed in more detail later, but for now I have the right to talk only about how A. Smith saw the problem. The fact that the conclusion drawn from his words is true can be confirmed by another quote from his work. " Anyone who offers another a deal of any kind is offering to do just that. Give me what I need, and you will get what you need - that is the meaning of any such offer. It is in this way that we receive from each other a much greater proportion of the services we need. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect to get our dinner, but from their self-interest. We appeal not to their humanity, but to their selfishness, and never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits. Adam Smith. "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations". BOOK 1. Chapter II "On the cause that causes the division of labor." So A. Smith saw not only inequality, which is the essence of exchange, but also inequality, which is one of the prerequisites for its occurrence, consisting in the unequal abilities of people to produce various goods. It is striking that he did not see the true meaning of any of them or the other. Since in the following, speaking about the quantitative side of the exchange relation, he proceeds not from the inequalities indicated by him, but from the equation, thereby showing inconsistency in judgments. " In a primitive and underdeveloped society, which preceded the accumulation of capital and the conversion of land into private ownership, the ratio between the quantities of labor necessary for the acquisition of different objects was, apparently, the only basis that could serve as a guide for exchanging them for each other. Thus, for example, if a hunting people usually takes twice as much labor to kill a beaver as to kill a deer, one beaver will naturally be exchanged for two deer, or will have the value of two deer. It is quite natural that a product usually produced in two days or two hours of labor will have twice the value of a product usually produced in one day or one hour of labor. . Further, regarding the exchange relation of labor to capital, he again returns to inequalities, since it is simply impossible not to see them in this case. In particular, he notes " When the finished commodity is exchanged for money, for labor, or for other products, besides the payment of the price of materials and the wages of workers, a certain amount must be given for the profit of the entrepreneur who risks his capital in this business. ... He would not have had any interest in hiring these workers if he could not expect to receive anything from the sale of the works made by them in excess of an amount sufficient only to replace his capital. Adam Smith. "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations". BOOK 1. Chapter VI "On constituent parts commodity prices".
the concept of "limits to economic growth"
concept of "new quality" of economic growth
The concept of "sustainable development"
70. Natural resources that create the conditions for human existence primarily include:
Panfilova
71. The absolute limitation of mineral resources is associated with (check):
involvement in the economic turnover of new types of resources
cardinal shifts in the production basis
The general limitation of the scale of our planet and all types of resources
72. Renewable (reproducible) types of natural resources:
solar energy
geothermal energy
73. The relative scarcity of mineral resources is associated with:
the general limitation of the scale of our planet and all types of resources
Cardinal shifts in the production base
Involvement in the economic turnover of new types of resources
74. Five countries, in the depths of which 100 billion tons of oil are concentrated (or 2/3 of all proven reserves):
Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
Norway
75. Seven countries with 60% of proven natural gas reserves:
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Saudi Arabia
76. The main oil exporters are currently:
Mexico
Norway
Saudi Arabia
Venezuela
77. Major oil importers:
EU countries
78. Top five places in world demand for primary energy resources:
hydropower
Natural gas
Atomic Energy
wind energy
solar energy
79. The main factors that, according to P. Samulson, will provide both individual countries and the global economy as a whole with “crisis-free development”:
Population
Capital
Technical innovations
democracy
culture
ecological cleanliness
humanity
80. "Six" countries-leaders in gold mining:
Australia
81. The science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, investigates the processes occurring in the structure, dynamics, movement and distribution of the population is called:
globalistics
sociology
political science
Demography
world economy
82. The population of the Earth is projected to be:
gradually decrease
dwindle
Growing slower
grow at an ever faster pace
83. The movement of the rural population to cities inevitably leads to:
marginalization
Urbanization
democratization
demopopulation
84. Movement of people across the borders of certain territories with a change of residence permanently or for a sufficient long term- this is:
population diversification
marginalization of the population
Population migration
geopoliticization
urbanization
85. Workers - frontaliers are:
officially registered migrant workers
illegal immigrants
Daily border workers
family members of migrants
86. The increase in the share of highly qualified specialists among migrants leads to:
significant losses
growth of economic crime
political instability
Significant economic effect for host countries
87. Groups of the population united along national, ethnic or religious lines and living in a new region (country) are called:
nationality
Diaspora
88. Modern demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
growth in the number of births
reduction in mortality among the population
Depopulations
Decreased life expectancy
increase in life expectancy
89. A continuing trend of “aging” of the population is characteristic of the following countries:
developing countries
Industrialized countries
countries with transition economy
90. The occupational structure of the population reflects:
political activity of the country in the international arena
The degree of development of society as a whole
age and sex composition of the population
Achieved structure of the economies of countries
unemployment rate in the country
General trends in the distribution of the labor force by sectors of employment
91. Typical trends in the distribution of economic active population(EAN) in industrialized countries:
growth of EAN in agriculture
Reduction and stabilization of EAN in agriculture
Service Employment Growth
92. Typical trends in the distribution of employment in developing countries:
increase in employment in agriculture
Industrial Employment Growth
High level of employment in agriculture
Service Employment Growth
93.Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAN in countries with economies in transition:
Consistently high level of employment in agriculture
Growth of employment in the service sector
growth in employment in industry and construction
Decrease in employment in industry and construction
94. Reasons for international migration:
Economic
Demographic
Military-political
Environmental
Terrorism
Podlesnykh
95. Characteristic features of the concept of "Population explosion" are considered
Decreasing mortality
low mortality
high birth rate
Sharp increase in population growth rate
declining birth rate
stable or minimally growing population
low birth rate
96. Characteristic features of the concept of "Demographic maturity" are
declining mortality
high birth rate
declining birth rate
low birth rate
Stable or minimally growing population
97. Characteristic features of the concept of "Demographic crisis" are
high birth rate
High mortality
The vital rate with a minus sign (-)
Depopulation
The death rate exceeds the birth rate
