The structure of the economic system of Russian society. Concept, structure and types of economic systems. Elements of productive forces

As you know, one of the most important scientific methods is a systematic approach that can be fully applied in the study economic processes, phenomena in their complex interrelation and interdependence.

In the most general sense, the term "system" (from the Greek "systema" - a whole made up of parts) means a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming a certain integrity, unity.

With this in mind, the economic system can be defined as an ordered set of economic ties and relations that are established in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and intangible goods. With this approach, subjects and objects of economic relations, various forms of relations between them should be distinguished.

Today, in Russian and foreign literature, there is no single definition of the concept of an economic system. As a rule, the authors point to the presence of a certain set of mechanisms and institutions that ensure the functioning of production, the distribution of income and consumption within certain territorial limits. Sometimes the definition includes a wider range of factors that determine the economic behavior of participants (laws and rules, traditions and beliefs, positions and assessments).

Thus, we can conclude that the economic system is a complex multidimensional formation that has the integrity and unity of all its constituent parts(elements).

In principle, the term "economic system" is applied at different levels of analysis. In this sense, the simplest formations (for example, individual households or business entities) can be considered an economic system, but most often this term is used in the framework of the macroeconomic approach, when the patterns of functioning are considered. national economy generally.

Any economic system presupposes a certain level of development of social production, therefore, it is usually characterized in two aspects:

Techno-technological - expresses the relationship "man - nature", i.e. presupposes those relations which are denoted by the category "productive forces";
Socio-economic - expresses relations between people, includes those relations that are designated by the category "relations of production".

The economic system has a complex structure, but at the same time all its constituent elements are subordinate to the whole.

From a practical point of view, it is advisable to single out separate subsystems (for example, the financial system, industry, the agricultural sector, etc.), which have a certain content of their own, but in unity form a new quality of the economic system (the whole is not identical to the simple sum of the properties of individual elements). Between the subsystems there is a system of connections that determine the nature of their subordination (subordination).

In general, the economic system reflects the special structure of society that arises from the practice of managing in specific conditions. It presents economic skills, traditions, the spiritual state of the people, their dominant values and the originality of their understanding of the world. At first glance, this does not imply the existence of identical systems (they are always specific, identical to the culture they reflect), however, one can try to identify some common features, traits and properties, build a classification economic systems.

The development of social production, the openness of economic systems for constant exchange with the external environment contribute to the enrichment of the original with new material, which causes the need for internal system changes. The result of them may be an updated model of the economy. AT economics the concept of "economic model" is used - a cast from reality, the result of knowledge, to one degree or another corresponding to the original.

In the course of the historical development of human society, several types (models) of economic systems have developed, differing primarily in ways and means of solving the main problems. economic problems(what, how and for whom to produce) 1 . More specific distinguishing features by which they can be compared, compared, are:

o prevailing forms and types of ownership,

o economic power and how to exercise it,

o business forms,

o the place and role of the market and market relations,

o the nature of state regulation of economic life.

1. Pure capitalism (market economy) is an economic system, the hallmarks of which are private property, free competition and pricing in the markets based on the laws of supply and demand, the priority of personal selfish interest (the desire to maximize one's income), the minimum level of economic power of individual entities (impossibility to radically influence the market situation), the minimum degree government intervention into the economy. This type of economic system is best described by A. Smith, who proclaimed the law of the "invisible hand", i. self-regulation of the market mechanism, when the desire to extract one's own benefit simultaneously leads to ensuring the interests of the whole society. In conclusion, it should be noted that the term "pure capitalism" is conditional, it is used only in theory, in reality there was a capitalism of free competition. Moreover, today “pure capitalism” is even more absurd than “pure socialism”.

2. command economy(communism) - an economic system in which opposite principles are implemented: rigid centralization of economic power by the state - the main subject of economic life, including the use of resources at all levels; the behavior of subjects is determined by national goals, the public interest dominates over the private. All resources are owned by the state, are not available for free use and are distributed in a directive way according to plans. As a result, production often acquires an autonomous character, does not meet social needs, technical progress is hampered, and economic stagnation sets in.

3. Mixed system - an economy in which there is a combination of some properties of the first and second systems. A mixed system has been formed in many industrialized countries, where an effective market mechanism is complemented by flexible contour state regulation. The role of the state is reduced, first of all, to creating favorable conditions for doing business, improving market infrastructure, providing certain social guarantees for the population, and solving national problems and tasks. In general, this type of economic system makes it possible to combine the advantages of the market mechanism with state regulation, which eliminates market failures and minimizes its negative effects on society.

4. Traditional economy - this type of economic system should be considered separately, since it takes place in countries defined as underdeveloped. Its most characteristic features are: economic activity is not perceived as primary value; the individual belongs to his original community; economic power is combined with political power. Almost all questions - what to produce, how, on the basis of what technologies, how to distribute the products produced - all this is determined by the prevailing customs and traditions. The same applies to needs that do not perform a stimulating function here for the development of production. The traditional economy is immune to the achievements of technological progress and is difficult to reform.

Thus, at the moment, humanity has gone through a long historical path of development, during which several types of economic systems have developed at different stages - market, command, mixed, and also traditional. The criteria for their separation are, first of all, the form of ownership and the type of coordinating mechanism (plan or market). Modern analysis shows that a mixed system has become the most attractive for society, allowing to supplement the advantages of the market with a flexible system of state regulation.

In modern conditions in industrialized countries, a mixed economy is increasingly replacing pure capitalism. Its main advantage is that it does not have the extremes inherent in the above two models. The main producers of products and buyers of the conditions of production there are large corporations, so economic power is not dispersed here, but at the same time it is not totalitarian in nature, it is not carried out by administrative and bureaucratic methods. Under such conditions distribution relations do not suppress exchange relations, but complement them; ownership of material resources can be public, state, private; the behavior of each subject is motivated by his personal interest, but at the same time, priority goals are also defined in society. The state performs an active function in the economy, there is a system for forecasting, planning and coordinating the activities of the public and private sectors.

The means of evolutionary transition to a mixed system is reform, during which the economy finds itself in a transitional state (transitional economy). It should be noted that the transition from one system to another does not always mean the need to change the form of ownership. For example, by the beginning of the 20th century, the economic model based on market mechanisms and regulated by the free market had exhausted itself. The free market mechanism was replaced by a regulated one: the system of state regulation of the economy arose during the First World War, its dismantling after the war led to a severe economic crisis (1929-1933). J. M. Keynes and his followers realized this and substantiated the need to reform the economy and strengthen the role of the state. F. Roosevelt's course in the USA confirmed their conclusions in practice.

Thus, the form of ownership does not prevent even more drastic changes in the economic course. The transition from one economic model to another is greatly facilitated by the fact that all modern economic systems have a common basis - commodity production, although the systems themselves differ in the level of its development, as well as in the type of economic power and forms of its implementation, and in what place economic power occupies in the value system of a given society. activity.

It is also important that each economic system has special properties that must be taken into account when reforming the economy. On the one hand, it looks like an open system interacting with the external environment (does not prevent the exchange of world experience, the approval of general patterns of production development, allows updating its elements, changing models). On the other hand, being a reflection of the cultural layer of a particular civilization, the economic system is primarily focused on the reproduction of this type of civilization, i.e. appears as a rigid closed system, when the possibilities of using the model developed in one economic system in other systems are limited.

Economic (economic) system- this is a system of relations between producers and consumers of goods ordered in a special way, i.e. a set of relations that develop regarding production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

In the study of economic systems, two approaches are observed:

1) historical, system-dynamic - characteristic of Marxism and institutionalism;

2) non-historical, systemostatic - inherent in the methodology of neoclassicism, neoliberalism.

The first approach to the analysis of economic processes and phenomena in the second half of the XIX century. and the first half of the 20th century. was carried out on the basis of the methodology of K. Marx. His concept of the formational approach has been used by many schools of economics.

Socio-economic formation- a historically defined type of society with organic relationships, patterns and laws of self-education and development.

The socio-economic formation is based on a certain mode of production, and its essence is formed by production relations. The formation also covers the corresponding political superstructure. Formations are characterized by culture, morality, religion, which are more dependent on traditions, mentality. The structure of the socio-economic formation can be traced in Figure 3.2.

Fig.3.2. The structure of the socio-economic formation

The criteria for various socio-economic formations are:

1) forms of ownership;

2) the degree of exploitation in society;

3) class relationships;

4) the state of the agricultural community.

K. Marx explained that the change of formation occurs as a result of self-development based on the resolution of contradictions, in particular antagonistic ones (between labor and capital and a number of others).

Mode of production- the unity of productive forces and production relations as a certain way of obtaining material wealth: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist.

productive forces:

a) a system of subjective (man) and material (means of production) elements that express people's attitude to nature;

b) the totality of the means of production and the people who have mastered these means of production.

Relations of production- this is the relationship between people about the production, exchange, distribution, consumption of goods. it public form productive forces. Their essence characterizes property.

Rejecting the formational approach to analysis, a number of economists use subjective interpretations in the analysis of economic systems. For example, an economic system (ES) is defined as:

The complex of institutions that is characteristic of a given economy;

Complexes of organizations, including the behavior of hundreds of millions of units;

The set of mechanisms by which the preferred goal of economic activity and the way to achieve it are determined;

Institutions, organizations, laws and regulations, traditions, beliefs, attitudes, assessments, prohibitions and patterns of behavior that directly or indirectly affect economic behavior and results;

a large system with many different types activities, and each link, component of the system can exist only because it receives something from others.

In the totality of the properties of the economic system, property in its many forms plays a fundamental role. It is a criterion for differentiating the economic system in determining their types. In addition to ownership, the following criteria are called:

production level;

The nature of the exchange;

Technostructure;

Moreover, society moves from one stage to another in an evolutionary way.

K.R. McConnell and S.L. Bru in "Economics" gives an original classification of economic systems:

Pure capitalism (free competition);

Command economy (communism);

Mixed system (USA, USSR, Sweden, Japan);

Market socialism (Yugoslavia);

Traditional economy (underdeveloped countries).

Summarizing the concepts known in foreign literature, one can define an economic system as a set of institutions and mechanisms for making and implementing decisions related to production, distribution of income and consumption within a certain geographical area.

In modern conditions, the market system as a spontaneous development mechanism does not exclude state regulation.

Under state regulation of the economy refers to the activity of the state in organizing the process of social reproduction, aimed at the efficient use of limited production resources to meet the needs of members of society.

The history of the development of human society is directly related to various economic systems, which include many elements or properties that can be formalized:

ES = f(A 1 ... A n),

where ES is an economic system,

A 1 , ... A n are defining properties.

In the totality of the constituent properties, the fundamental role is played by property in its diversity. different forms Oh. The properties of ES and, above all, property are the criteria for differentiating economic systems, determining their types and models.

1. Traditional systems . In some so-called underdeveloped countries, there are traditional mentality-based systems. Traditions passed down from generation to generation determine what goods and services, how and for whom to produce. The list of benefits, production technology and distribution are based on customs and religion. The economic role of an individual is determined by heredity and caste. Technological progress often conflicts with tradition and threatens the stability of the existing system.

2. Command-administrative system . All economic decisions are made by the state. Resources are mostly the property of the state. Centralized economic planning covers all levels - from household to the state. Resource allocation is based on long-term priorities. The command-administrative system in certain conditions gives positive economic results. Thus, over the past 20 years, the average annual growth rate in the Chinese economy has been about 8%. In Russia, success in solving problems is associated with the command-and-control system. critical issues:

Industrialization in the 20-30s;

Collectivization of agriculture;

Mobilization National economy during the Great Patriotic War;

The development of the defense industry, thanks to which for many years parity in the military field and qualitative superiority in aviation, rocket technology, and nuclear weapons were maintained;

Creation of a society of mass consumption in the 60-70s.

However, the command-administrative system that had taken shape in the prewar years and strengthened during the war years began to falter in the 1980s. Unsuccessful attempts to reform the economy suggested the need for a fundamental change in the system, namely: the demonopolization of the economy, the denationalization of property, and the creation of a market economy.

3. Pure capitalism . The capitalism of the era of perfect competition with the “invisible hand” is characterized by private ownership of resources and the use of the market mechanism to coordinate economic behavior and manage the economy according to the principle “laissez faire, laissez passer” (“let it go as it goes”).

The behavior of market entities is motivated by rational (selfish) interest. Each economic unit strives to maximize income on the basis of free decision-making, when the self-regulation of the market determines prices, profits, losses.

What to produce is decided by solvent demand, voting with money. The consumer decides for himself what to pay money for. The manufacturer seeks to satisfy the desire of consumers who are ready to give money for the goods they need.

How to produce is decided by the producer seeking to obtain more income. Since price setting does not depend on him, to achieve his goal, the manufacturer must produce a product at low cost, which will allow him to sell more goods and at a low price.

For whom to produce is decided in favor of consumers with the highest income.

It should be noted that the market economy described in the ideal (theoretical) version has never existed.

4. Socially oriented free market economy , whose main principles are freedom of the individual, trade, entrepreneurship, free pricing, free competition. In other words, a developed commodity-money economy in the absence of monopolies. The role of the state is reduced to monitoring compliance with the fact that all members of society build their economic activities in accordance with existing rules and laws.

American model It is built on a system of all-round encouragement of entrepreneurship, enrichment of the most active part of the population. An acceptable standard of living is being created for low-income groups of the population through partial benefits and allowances. This model is based on a high level of labor productivity and the orientation of the masses towards achieving personal success.

AT American economy the state plays an important role in approving the rules of the economic game, developing education, and regulating business. However, most decisions are made based on the market situation and changes in it.

There is a certain lag in the standard of living of the population (including the level wages) from the growth of labor productivity. Due to this, a reduction in the cost of production and an increase in its competitiveness in the world market are achieved. There are no barriers to property stratification. Such a model is possible only with exceptionally high development national economy, the priority of the interests of the nation over the interests of a particular person, the willingness of the population to make certain material sacrifices for the sake of the country's prosperity.

Japanese model economy is characterized by advanced planning and coordination of government and private sector activities. The economic planning of the state is advisory (indicative) in nature. Plans are government programs that orient and mobilize individual parts of the economy to fulfill national tasks. Characteristically, the preservation of national traditions while borrowing from other states everything that is needed for the development of the country. This allows you to create such systems of management and organization of production, which in the conditions of Japan give a great effect.

Swedish model has a strong social policy aimed at reducing wealth inequality through the redistribution of national income in favor of the poorest segments of the population. Only 4% of fixed assets are in the hands of the state, but the share of public expenditures reaches 70% of the gross domestic product, with more than half of these expenditures directed to social needs. Naturally, this is possible only in conditions of a high tax rate. This model is called "functional socialization", in which the function of production falls on private enterprises operating on a competitive market basis, and the function of ensuring a high standard of living (including employment, education, social insurance) and many elements of infrastructure (transport, R&D) - on the state. As a result, unemployment has been reduced to a minimum in the country, differences in incomes of the population are relatively small, the level of social security of citizens is high, and the export ability of Swedish companies is effective. The main advantage of the Swedish model is that it combines economic growth, high living standards of the population with full employment.

The advantage of a mixed economy is the efficiency of resource use and the economic freedom of producers, stimulating the introduction of more modern equipment and technology. An important non-economic argument is the bet on personal freedom.

Note that there is no unambiguous generally accepted solution to economic problems. Approaches and methods effective use own resources are affected not only by objective laws and trends, but also by the influence of national culture, customs and traditions.

A society in which power is in the hands

rich, still better than society,

in which they can become rich

only those in whose hands the power.

Friedrich Hayek,

Austro-Anglo-American economist.

The planned economy takes into account in its

plans everything except the economy.

Carey McWilliams,

American journalist.

Democracy, of course, is a bad thing,

but the fact is that all other "things" are even worse.

Winston Churchill,

British statesman.

The concept of the economic system of society, its structure

The Greek word systema means a whole made up of parts.

For the first time the economic system was considered by Adam Smith in 1776.

There are various approaches to defining an economic system, for example,

an economic system is a mode of production, i.e. the unity of the productive forces and the production relations corresponding to them (this is the Marxist approach);

or is it a community of people (society) united by common economic interests;

or is it the unity of man and social production, etc.

Economic system -a set of principles, rules and legislative norms in the country that determine the form and content of economic relations in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.

The economic system of a society consists of elements that are interconnected and interact. These elements constitute the structure of the economic system.

The structure of the economic system:

ü productive forces;

ü industrial relations;

the management system.

Consider the elements of the structure of the economic system.

The productive forcesa set of material and personal factors of production and certain forms of their organization that ensure interaction and efficiency of use.

Elements of productive forces:

ü means of production, i.e. means of labor (what the activity is carried out with) and objects of labor (what the activity is aimed at).

The structure of the productive forces:

ü material - a set of personal and material factors of production. The means of production are included in production by people, so the main productive force is people with experience and skills.

ü spiritual - science as a general productive force;

The level of productive forces is determined by the height of the qualification, educational, cultural and technical level of the employee, the degree of technology development, the level of introduction of scientific achievements into production, etc.

industrial relations -the totality of relations that develop between people in the process of producing economic goods, as well as the relationship of people to the means of production in the process of their use to meet needs.

The relations of production show who owns the means of production, what is the nature of labor (wage, free), in whose interests and how products and incomes are distributed.

The subjects of industrial relations are labor collectives, individuals, social groups, society.

Types of industrial relations:

ü between states (international industrial relations);

ü between the state and firms (enterprises);

ü between enterprises;

ü between the state and households;

ü within the enterprise;

between businesses and households.

Any economic system has its own, national mechanism of functioning. That's what it is management system- a set of governing bodies and regulation of the economy of a particular country, group of countries. It includes property relations, the mechanism of coordination and the level of state regulation.

Types of economic systems

In the history of economics, various methods and approaches to the classification of economic systems are known. According to Karl Marx, economic systems are divided according to socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist. This is due to the level of development of productive forces, which is ahead of the development of production relations. The contradictions between the productive forces and production relations can reach a conflict, resulting in a change of formations.

In the twentieth century the formational approach to the evolution of economic systems has been repeatedly criticized. Thus, the American economist, sociologist and politician W. Rostow created the theory of economic growth, according to which the economic system of any country can be attributed to one of five stages of economic growth: traditional society- the basis is manual labor, manual equipment, agricultural production, low labor productivity; transitional society– development of science, technology, crafts, market; shift economic system - significant growth capital investments, fast growth labor productivity in agriculture, infrastructure development; society of economic maturity - the rapid growth of production and its efficiency, the development of the entire economy; society of high mass consumption - production begins to work mainly for the consumer, the leading place is occupied by industries that produce durable goods.

The change of stages occurs in connection with changes in the leading group of the industry. This theory of his became widespread in the 60s of the twentieth century, in the 70s Rostow proposed to supplement this theory with another sixth stage, which he called "the search for a new life."

A similar theory was put forward in the early 1970s by the American sociologist D. Bell in his work The Coming of Industrial Society. He divided society into pre-industrial ( has a low level of development) industrial(organized on the basis of machine- industrial production) and post-industrial(characterized by the following features: the center of gravity moves from the production of goods to the production of services, science, information, innovations play an important role, the main place belongs to specialists).

The German economist B. Hildebrand used exchange relations as a criterion for the level of production and therefore distinguished three historical types of economic systems: natural, monetary, credit.

Modern economists, representatives of economics, usually classify economic systems according to several criteria. The first of these is the ownership of the means of production, the second is the way in which economic decisions. The most generally accepted classification proposed by the American economist K.R. McConnell. This classification is based on the solution of three main problems of the economy.

Before any economic system is three main problems:

- what to produce, i.e. what goods and services;

- how to produce, i.e. by what means of production?

- who will consume.

Depending on how society answers these basic questions, there are types of economic systems.

Consider the models of economic systems proposed by K.R. McConnell.

Traditional economy – answers to the main questions are given according to tradition, based on customs (in the tribes of Africa, Australia). In such an economy, technologies are traditional and stable, the range of goods produced almost does not change. A young man does what his father does, and a young girl does what her mother does.

Command economy (planned or centralized) – answers to all questions are given with the help of plans (in the USSR, countries of Eastern Europe, China, Cuba), characterized by public ownership of the means of production.

Market economy (pure capitalism) – answers to all questions are given through the action of market mechanisms, private ownership of the means of production is inherent. But there is no market economy in its purest form; pure capitalism presupposes non-intervention of the state in the affairs of the economy, and this is not found anywhere in the world.

In countries Western Europe, America mixed economy.

Mixed economy -an economy in which, along with the operation of market mechanisms, there is state intervention in the affairs of the economy, there are various forms of ownership.

There are different types of mixed economy: for example, planned capitalism, those. an economy in which, along with the action of market mechanisms, there is planning, active state intervention in the affairs of the economy(e.g. Japan, France).

Market socialism(or socially oriented market economy) - an economy in which, along with the action of market mechanisms, there is state intervention in the affairs of the economy and an active influence on socio-economic processes(e.g. Sweden, Germany). In Germany, for example, the principle is: "As little state as possible, and as much state as necessary." In countries with market socialism, there is an extensive network of social protection: payments to the sick, the disabled, the unemployed, assistance to those who have suffered from the bankruptcy of enterprises, allowances for children, the poor, etc.

Currently there are still countries with economies in transition. Transition period – is the transition time from one system to another.

Let's take a closer look at command and market economies.

The main features of the command system:

ü the dominance of public or state ownership of the means of production;

ü the dictatorship of the State Planning Committee in the economy;

ü administrative methods of economic management;

ü financial dictatorship of the state.

Main advantages:

ü a more stable economy;

ü more people's confidence in the future;

ü full employment;

ü less inequality in society;

ü minimum life support for all.

Main cons:

ü unsatisfactory work of state property ( it was poorly used, the equipment has not been updated for years, theft and mismanagement are developed);

ü no incentive to work hard(there are no incentives for hard work, shirking from work, because, as A.S. Pushkin said, “human nature is lazy (Russian nature in particular”);

ü irresponsibility, lack of initiative of employees(there was even a saying: “The initiative hits the initiator in the head”);

ü economic inefficiency and general deficits;

ü dictatorship of producers over consumers(produced what was planned in the State Planning Commission, and not what the people needed);

ü low level the life of the people.

The experience of not a single decade has shown that the command economy turned out to be untenable. "conscious orders" (in the words of the Austro-Anglo-American economist Friedrich von Hayek), i.e. given from above are unnatural for developing, multi-complex systems. V.I. Lenin wrote about communism: "the whole society will be one office, one factory." But you can not create the desired order "like a mosaic of the pieces you like." Saltykov-Shchedrin said: "It is impossible to feed anyone by mere orderliness."

Market economy - it is an economic system based on the voluntary cooperation of individuals, on direct links between producers and consumers through the free sale and purchase of goods. Such an exchange “gives people what they want, and not what they should want according to the understanding of some group” (according to Milton Friedman, an American economist, a supporter of liberalism or neoclassicism).

The main features of a market economy:

ü private ownership of the means of production;

ü freedom and financial responsibility of entrepreneurs(each person can engage in any legal activity, decides for himself what, how and for whom to produce, “forges his own happiness”, he himself bears financial responsibility for the results of his activities). For example, American tobacco factories are forced to pay multimillion-dollar funds to victims of smoking for not warning enough about the deadly danger of their products, about the high probability of smokers being affected by various diseases. Or paying a million dollar fine by a microwave oven company to a grandmother who unknowingly dried her beloved dog in such an oven);

ü freedom to choose economic partners(Each producer, consumer has the right to choose his own economic partners, and, thanks to a wide variety of products, the decisive word belongs to the consumer. It is his choice that ultimately determines what to produce and how much. As Milton Friedman figuratively put it, “everyone can vote for the color of your tie");

ü participants' personal gain economic ties ( it is the best stimulator of human initiative, ingenuity, and activity. Adam Smith wrote about her: “A man constantly needs the help of his neighbors, and in vain will he expect it only from their favor. He will achieve his goal more quickly if he turns to their selfishness and manages to show them that it is in their own interests to do for him what he requires of them ... Give me what I need, and you will get what you need - such the meaning of any such proposal. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect to get our dinner, but from their self-interest. We appeal not to humanity, but to selfishness, and never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits.

ü self-regulation of the economy under the influence of market factors(freely developing prices, competition, interaction of supply and demand, etc.);

ü minimum state intervention in the affairs of the economy(the less state intervention in the economy, the less interference for market self-regulation. As Yegor Gaidar said: the level of crime in society depends on the balance of power between the state and business in the economy, because an official is always potentially more criminogenic than a businessman. “A businessman can enrich himself honestly , as long as they don't interfere. An official can enrich himself only dishonorably");

Main advantages:

ü stimulates high efficiency and enterprise;

ü rejects inefficient and unnecessary production;

ü distributes income according to the results of labor;

ü gives more rights and opportunities to consumers;

ü does not require a large control apparatus.

Main cons:

ü exacerbates inequality in society(private property allows individual citizens to accumulate enormous wealth and not necessarily through their own labor);

ü causes great instability in society(it is characterized by ups and downs, periodic exacerbations of the problems of unemployment, inflation, a decrease in the living standards of people, etc.);

ü not interested in non-profit production(manufacturers are not interested in such issues as universal education and health care, national security, public order, street lighting, etc., because this does not bring profit);

ü indifferent to the damage that business can cause to man and nature.

The market economy is distinguished by the fact that it has "spontaneous orders" that are formed without anyone's intention in a living, spontaneous process of interaction between thousands of people. The market was not invented or built by anyone, it took shape over the centuries, strengthened and developed only those social institutions that have passed natural selection, the test of experience and time. A market economy is an economy in which “a person depends only on himself, and not on the mercy of the powers that be” (Friedrich von Hayek). He said: "A society in which power is in the hands of the rich is still better than a society in which only those in whose hands power can become rich."

Ownership in the economic system

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of property relations in people's lives. Hegel called them the axis "around which all legislation revolves and with which, one way or another, most of the rights of citizens correspond." It is property relations that determine real power in society: who commands production and how the product is distributed. The material well-being, freedom and independence of a person largely depend on them. In everyday communication, property is called property, i.e. a set of things, values owned by a person, enterprise, society.

Meanwhile, property is only a part of the objects of property.

Own- it is an objectively emerging and legally fixed set of relations between people regarding the appropriation of life's goods in the process of their production, distribution, exchange, consumption.

Property - economic basis systems of society, main element . She conditions economic way connection of the worker with the means of production, the purpose of the functioning and development of the economic system, the social structure of society, etc.

There are two different approaches to ownership in Marxist and Western economic theory. According to Marxism: property occupies the main place in this or that mode of production, and their change is carried out in accordance with the change in the dominant forms of ownership, the main evil of capitalism is the existence of private property. Therefore, the reform capitalist society he associated with the replacement of private property with public property.

In Western economic theory the concept of ownership is associated with the scarcity of resources compared to the need for them. This contradiction is resolved by excluding access to resources, which provides ownership.

For business, it is key ownership of the means of production. These relationships are very complex and multifaceted, but three points can be distinguished in them:

Fig.3. Ownership structure

Let's consider each of the points:

Appropriation of the means of production - this is the established and legally fixed right of various objects to be the owner of the corresponding means of production, namely own, use and manage them.

Ownership– this is a legally legalized right of the subject of ownership to independently and in his own interests solve the problems of using objects of property that are in his power;order– those. management, business, use - those. appropriation of useful properties of the good,alienation - those. actions related to the transfer of property rights (donation, inheritance, pledge, etc.).

Relations of economic use arise when the owner of these funds does not use them himself, but leases them for temporary possession and use to other persons or organizations, reserving the right to dispose of them.

Relations of economic realization of property arise when the means of production used bring income to their owner.

Thus, property is seen as the right to control the use of certain resources and share the resulting costs and benefits. The object of study, therefore, is the behavioral relationship between people, sanctioned by laws, orders, traditions, customs of society, which arise in connection with the existence and use of goods.

Economic theory distinguishes subjects and objects of property.

Subjects - These are legal entities and individuals between whom property relations arise. They can be grouped into three large groups:

o private individuals

ü teams

society (state)

Private individuals are, as a rule, individual individuals who own the property . Collective is an association of people who own property. Society is the largest subject of ownership, it manages and disposes of property belonging to the citizens of this country.

Objects – this is what property relations are about. These include the means of production, commodities, resources, labor.

The composition of the property may change. It changes under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the development of productive forces. At the same time, no matter how the objects of property change, among them one can always single out the main, key ones, the possession of which gives real economic power. These include the means of production. Their owner is the real owner of production and its results.

Property types can be distinguished along two main lines: by subjects (who owns) and by objects (what owns).

Depending on whether who is the owner, distinguish various types property. The most important of them (according to the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, article No. 13 and the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus, article No. 213) are state and private property.

Private property – a type of property in which an individual has the exclusive right to own, dispose and use the object of property and receive income.

Its characteristic feature is that it can be inherited.

Private property has two forms depending on the subjects of ownership:

ü the property of the citizens themselves;

ü property of legal entities (enterprises, firms, organizations, institutions, etc.).

There are two types of private property: labor and non-labor.

a) labor: from entrepreneurial activity, from running your own economy, from other forms based on labor this person;

b) unearned: from receiving property by inheritance, dividends from valuable papers, from other funds not related to labor activity.

State property -type of ownership, in which the means of production, manufactured products, property values belong to the state. There are two forms of state ownership: republican and communal.

The subject of republican property is the entire population of the republic. The property of the republic includes land, its subsoil, republican banks, funds of the republican budget, enterprises, national economic complexes, educational establishments and other property.

Communal (municipal) property consists of funds local budget, housing stock, trade enterprises, consumer services, transport, industrial and construction enterprises, institutions of public education, culture, etc.

Management and disposal of objects of property is carried out on behalf of the people by state authorities. The peculiarity of this property is the indivisibility of its objects between subjects. AT different countries specific gravity state property is different.

At one time, K. Marx and F. Engels called private property "the highest cause of evil" on earth and "proprietary disgusting" that gives rise to the exploitation of man by man.

There is no ideal form of ownership, but nevertheless, private property received the best assessment both in life and in business. Because she:

ü generates people's interest in hard work, because as Alexander Herzen said: “a person seriously does something only when he does it for himself”;

ü serves as a source of material well-being of a person, and hence the well-being of the whole society, because the richer the citizens, the more the society prospers;

ü it is the guarantor of freedom and independence;

ü raises a person morally, it fills his life with creative, creative meaning.

Even Aristotle wrote that "everyone will be diligent about what belongs to him."

But private property also has its drawbacks: it strengthens individualism, egoism, the desire for money-grubbing in society, and strengthens the disunity of people.

State (public) property actually means "no man's property" for people, so it is used less efficiently and even taken away. As A. Marshall stated, "collective ownership of the means of production will kill the energy of mankind and stop economic development." At the same time, state ownership is absolutely necessary in such areas as military, space, energy, etc.

The second line of types of property suggests distinguishing them by property, those. depending on whether what is in possession. In this regard, there are:

ü material property, those. ownership of material goods - enterprises, equipment, financial resources, houses, etc., the main owners are landowners, manufacturers, merchants and other entrepreneurs;

ü intellectual, those. the property of authors (scientists, inventors, writers, composers, architects, etc.) for the spiritual, intangible values created by them;

ü ownership of management (power), those. ownership of the process of managing society, the leading role in it. This type of property can be called property only conditionally, because its object has no form. This is the power of those who exercise state administration.

Denationalization and privatization in the Republic of Belarus

In different countries and in different periods of history, the ratio between private and public property is different and may change. In search of efficiency or for some purpose, states conduct nationalization, then privatization of property.

Nationalization(from lat. natio– tribe, people) – it is the socialization of property, its transfer from private hands to state hands. She may be compensated(with full or partial compensation) or gratuitous(without compensation, i.e. by force).

The primary task of the transition economy is to create the necessary prerequisites for the transition to a market economy, for the accelerated denationalization and privatization of state property.

Reforming state property, as well as carrying out economic reforms in the Republic of Belarus is due to the need to improve the efficiency of the sectors of the national economy in market conditions.

The following directions were put forward as the main tasks of reforming state property in the republic:

ü Increasing production efficiency and restructuring;

ü development of entrepreneurship and initiative at different levels and in various forms of management;

ü rational use of production potential and ensuring expanded reproduction;

ü Increased efficiency Belarusian economy in general and the activities of individual enterprises;

ü attracting investments into production necessary for production, technological and social development enterprises;

ü assistance in the development of social protection of the population.

One of the most important conditions for the effective functioning of the economy in the conditions of market relations is the denationalization of the economy.

The concepts of denationalization and privatization are given in the Law “On denationalization and privatization of state property in the Republic of Belarus”.

Denationalization -This is the transfer from the state to individuals in part or in full of the functions of direct management of economic objects.

Goals of denationalization:

ü ensuring the necessary level of independence and economic responsibility of producers;

ü creating a competitive environment for the effective functioning of a market economy.

Denationalization of property in two directions:

ü by limiting state intervention in economic activity;

ü by denationalization of property, i.e. creation of new private, collective enterprises and privatization of existing ones.

However, the state retains the functions of regulating social production by economic and legal norms.

One of the directions of denationalization of the economy is privatization.

Privatization - acquisition by individuals and legal entities of the right to state facilities.

As a result of privatization, the state loses the right to own, use and dispose of objects of state property, and government bodies the right to manage them.

The main tasks to be solved in the process of privatization:

ü ensuring the economic freedom of citizens;

ü the destruction of the state monopoly in production and commercial activities and the creation of a competitive environment for the effective functioning of the economy;

ü transfer of functions of direct management of the enterprise to producers of products (services);

ü increasing the economic responsibility of commodity producers for the results of their activities;

ü Reducing government spending to support low-profit and unprofitable enterprises.

Privatization principles:

ü a combination of gratuitous and paid methods of privatization;

ü the right of every citizen of the Republic of Belarus to a part of property transferred free of charge;

ü providing social guarantees to members of labor collectives of privatized enterprises;

ü control over the conduct of privatization by the state;

ü ensuring wide publicity of the privatization process;

ü gradualness, gradualness, observance of the law;

ü differentiation of methods, forms and procedures of privatization.

What kind objects state property subject to privatization? These are, first of all, trade enterprises, Catering, consumer services, light and food industry enterprises, motor transport enterprises, woodworking and building materials, mothballed facilities, housing, etc.

In accordance with the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On the denationalization and privatization of state property in the Republic of Belarus”, healthcare, education, military defense facilities, the production of alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, the issuance of securities, television, radio, printing houses, institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Belarus, theaters, museums, etc.

Subjects of privatization – these are citizens of the Republic of Belarus, legal entities whose activities are based on non-state forms of ownership, labor collectives of state enterprises, foreign investors and stateless persons.

In world practice, there are various ways of privatization:

ü restitution (return of property former owners);

ü sale of property to third parties;

ü sale of property to employees of the enterprise;

ü voucherization (distribution of state property among holders of vouchers);

Currently, there are two methods of privatization in the Republic of Belarus:

ü gratuitous transfer of objects to citizens;

ü paid (monetary) privatization.

Privatization through the sale and purchase of state property provides a real change of ownership and indicates the buyer's interest in privatization, but given the limited cash resources of the population and enterprises, it can drag on for many years.

With free transfer state property social justice is ensured. A circle of potential owners of their number is quickly being created not only in the industrial, but also in the social environment. However, there is no certainty that they will actually become owners; and if they do, they will be good leaders.

There are different ways of privatization:

the transformation of a state-owned enterprise into joint-stock company and in LLC;

ü redemption of property by a rental company;

ü sale of objects of state and municipal property at auctions, by tenders;

ü transformation of a state enterprise into a collective one;

ü issuance of registered privatization checks “Housing” and “Property” to every citizen of the republic.

Source of financing for privatization can serve:

ü enterprise funds(part of net profit, part of economic incentive funds, etc.);

ü citizens' funds(personal funds, nominal privatization checks of citizens of the Republic of Belarus);

ü bank loans, cash insurance companies;

ü funds of foreign investors;

ü funds from the issue of securities;

Funds from the privatization of republican property is credited to the republican budget, communal property- to the income of the respective administrative-territorial divisions.

Foreign investors can also take part in the privatization process.

The privatization process should take place in two stages: first stage- so-called "small privatization", the objects of which are communal property enterprises (shops, hairdressers, cafes, etc.);

second phase– privatization of medium and large facilities with the involvement of foreign investors.

One of the controversial issues is the issue of land privatization. One of the main reasons for the state to move away from monopoly ownership of land is the inefficient use and deterioration of agricultural land.

But Article 13 of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus states: “Subsoil, water, forests are the exclusive property of the state. Agricultural land is owned by the state.

Introduction

Chapter 1 The concept, essence and structure of the economic system of society Classification of economic systems

1.1 The concept, essence and structure of the economic system of society

1.2 Types of economic systems

1.3 Classification of the economic system of society

Chapter 2 Crises in the development of socio-economic systems of society

2.1 General concepts crises

2.2 Typology of crises

2.3 Cycles of social reproduction and their role in the occurrence of economic crises

2.4 Main theories of economic crises

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Relevance. In conditions of limited economic resources, and, consequently, production possibilities, limitless needs, society needs to choose and decide what to produce, what to refuse, where, in which productions to direct economic resources, how much and how to produce, how to distribute also quantitatively limited produced goods . The society should work out some procedure for resolving these issues. Only if there is a mechanism for harmonization, coordination economic activity individuals, enterprises, organizations can achieve fruitful economic cooperation between members of society.

Thus, the economic system can be defined as a set of ordered elements of the economy that are closely interconnected and form economic structure society.

Each system has a national model of economic organization. This fact is due to different levels economic development, social and national conditions existing in countries.

Therefore, the chosen topic control work has a high degree of relevance.

The purpose of the study is to reveal the concept of "economic system", determine the types of economic systems, as well as review existing national models of farm organization.

Research objectives:

1. Expand the concept and essence of the economic system.

2. Determine the main types of economic systems.

3. Consider crises in the economic system of society.

The object of research is the economic system of society. The subject of the study is the concept and structure of the economic system of society.

The structure of the work: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

Theoretical basis scientific, educational and special literature on economic theory served for writing the work.

Chapter 1 The concept and structure of the economic system of society. Classification of economic systems

1.1 The concept, essence and structure of economic systems

In each country, under the influence of many circumstances, its own system of coordination develops, and it is impossible to find completely identical economic systems. If we try to make some generalizations and make a classification of economic systems, then the main distinguishing feature will be the ratio of market and state regulation that has developed in the economy of a particular country. The market and the state are the main two forces that carry out regulatory functions in the economy. In different countries and in different historical periods, the ratio between them developed in different ways.

The economic system has special properties. On the one hand, it can be considered as an open system, since it contains, for example, the exchange of world experience, general patterns of development of production, there is a change of models; and on the other hand, the economic system is a closed system, since it is focused primarily on the reproduction of this type of civilization, it is very difficult to use a model developed in one economic system for another economic system.

The economic system has a structure that has developed in a certain way, which can also be attributed to its special property.

The economic system of a society includes small economic systems such as households and businesses.

In addition, the economic system of a society may contain elements of both socio-economic systems and technical and economic systems. All systems are closely interconnected with each other, have a single structure of social organization and management, and are in the process of constant interaction.

The functions that the economic system performs include the following:

– creation of material resources for society;

- implementation of the interaction of society with nature;

- acts as a self-regulating subsystem social life which creates the necessary prerequisites and conditions for various aspects of life.

The versatility of the economic system makes it possible to define it: the economic system is a set of mechanisms and institutions that relate to production, income; it is a specially ordered system of relations between producers and consumers of material and non-material goods and services; a set of economic phenomena and processes taking place in society on the basis of property relations and organizational and legal forms of management operating in it.

Thus, the economic system is an integral part of society, which, in addition to economic relations, includes political, ideological, socio-cultural, legal and other relations.

1.2 Types of economic systems

It is customary to distinguish three types of economic systems: a free or pure market, a mixed economy, and a centrally planned or command economy.

Let's consider models taking into account the following features: the predominant form and types of ownership, economic power and methods of its implementation, forms of management, the place and role assigned to the market, economic role states.

A free (pure) market system is a system in which the state exercises the least regulation of economic processes, and the forces of free competition, market self-regulation reach the greatest distribution.

Main characteristics of the free market system:

1. Private property.

The right of non-state, private ownership of economic resources - capital, land, Natural resources. Moreover, a very significant part of the material resources is privately owned.

2. Free enterprise.

Individuals, their groups, on their own initiative, act as free entrepreneurs who take on the function of organizing economic forces: they mobilize the necessary resources, organize the production itself and the sale of manufactured goods. They fully assume all economic risk, which is absolutely inevitable, since no one can know in advance whether it will be possible to sell the product, what the price of its sale will be, whether the proceeds received will cover the costs incurred. Free enterprise is becoming a mass phenomenon, it is it that provides most of the production of the national product.

3. Personal interest.

Economic entities act in accordance with their personal economic interests. The desire to best realize individual interest is the main motive for economic actions. Everyone seeks to maximize his income: the entrepreneur - profit, the employee - wages, the creditor - the interest on the loan, the landowner - rent.

4. "Invisible hand."

Adam Smith suggested that there is a "hand invisible to the world" that directs individual behavior, personal interests to public goals, to the satisfaction of the interests of others. economic entities. What is meant by the "invisible hand" is the market, as a coordinating mechanism, with its own elements: demand, supply, price. Demand expresses the intentions of consumers, supply expresses the capabilities and desires of producers, and price is a tool for coordinating their decisions and actions. Through the interaction of these elements, the decisions of producers and consumers are transmitted and coordinated. It is a self-regulating system that does not require external intervention.

5. Free competition.

There is so-called perfect, or free, competition. It presupposes the presence of many independently acting both sellers and buyers of each resource and final product or service. Each of these economic entities by itself is not able to influence the price at which this or that product is sold. As a result, economic power is widely dispersed.

6. Minimal state influence.

State influence on the economy is mainly limited to the protection of private property and the formation of a certain legal environment for the activities of economic entities through laws, decrees, resolutions.

In modern conditions, economic systems like a free market do not exist. The system with the smallest "coordination weight" of the state is designated as a free market system, with the largest - as a centrally planned, or command, approximately with an average - as a mixed one.

Any economic system presupposes a certain level of development of social production, therefore, it is usually characterized in two aspects:

Techno-technological - expresses the relationship "man - nature", i.e. presupposes those relations which are denoted by the category "productive forces";

Socio-economic - expresses relations between people, includes those relations that are designated by the category "relations of production".

The economic system has a complex structure, but at the same time all its constituent elements are subordinate to the whole.

In general, the economic system reflects the special structure of society that arises from the practice of managing in specific conditions. It presents economic skills, traditions, the spiritual state of the people, their dominant values and the originality of their understanding of the world. At first glance, this does not imply the existence of identical systems (they are always specific, identical to the culture they reflect), however, one can try to identify some common features, features and properties, build a classification of economic systems.

The development of social production, the openness of economic systems for constant exchange with the external environment contribute to the enrichment of the original with new material, which causes the need for internal system changes. The result of them may be an updated model of the economy. In economics, the concept of "economic model" is used - a cast from reality, the result of knowledge, to one degree or another corresponding to the original.

In the course of the historical development of human society, several types (models) of economic systems have developed, differing primarily in ways and means of solving the main economic problems (what, how and for whom to produce). More specific distinguishing features by which they can be compared, compared, are:

Dominant forms and types of ownership,

Economic power and how to exercise it,

business forms,

Place and role of the market and market relations,

The nature of state regulation of economic life.

Pure capitalism (market economy) is an economic system, the hallmarks of which are private property, free competition and pricing in the markets based on the laws of supply and demand, the priority of personal selfish interest (the desire to maximize one's income), the minimum level of economic power of individual entities (the impossibility drastically affect the market situation), the minimum degree of state intervention in the economy. This type of economic system is best described by A. Smith, who proclaimed the law of the "invisible hand", i. self-regulation of the market mechanism, when the desire to extract one's own benefit simultaneously leads to ensuring the interests of the whole society. In conclusion, it should be noted that the term "pure capitalism" is conditional, it is used only in theory, in reality there was a capitalism of free competition. Moreover, today “pure capitalism” is even more absurd than “pure socialism”.

Command economy (communism) is an economic system in which opposite principles are implemented: rigid centralization of economic power by the state - the main subject of economic life, including the use of resources at all levels; the behavior of subjects is determined by national goals, the public interest dominates over the private. All resources are owned by the state, are not available for free use and are distributed in a directive way according to plans. As a result, production often acquires an autonomous character, does not meet social needs, technical progress is hampered, and economic stagnation sets in.

A mixed system is an economy in which a combination of some properties of the first and second systems takes place. A mixed system has been formed in many industrialized countries, where an effective market mechanism is complemented by flexible contour state regulation. The role of the state is reduced, first of all, to creating favorable conditions for doing business, improving market infrastructure, providing certain social guarantees for the population, and solving national problems and tasks. In general, this type of economic system makes it possible to combine the advantages of the market mechanism with state regulation, which eliminates market failures and minimizes its negative effects on society.

Traditional economy - this type of economic system should be considered separately, since it takes place in countries defined as underdeveloped. Its most characteristic features are: economic activity is not perceived as a primary value; the individual belongs to his original community; economic power is combined with political power. Almost all questions - what to produce, how, on the basis of what technologies, how to distribute the products produced - all this is determined by the prevailing customs and traditions. The same applies to needs that do not perform a stimulating function here for the development of production. The traditional economy is immune to the achievements of technological progress and is difficult to reform.

In modern conditions in industrialized countries, a mixed economy is increasingly replacing pure capitalism. Its main advantage is that it does not have the extremes inherent in the above two models. The main producers of products and buyers of the conditions of production there are large corporations, so economic power is not dispersed here, but at the same time it is not totalitarian in nature, it is not carried out by administrative and bureaucratic methods. Under such conditions, distribution relations do not suppress exchange relations, but supplement them; ownership of material resources can be public, state, private; the behavior of each subject is motivated by his personal interest, but at the same time, priority goals are also defined in society. The state performs an active function in the economy, there is a system for forecasting, planning and coordinating the activities of the public and private sectors.

1.3 Classification of economic systems

Variety of economic systems. Economic systems are in constant motion and development. One economic system is replaced by another. As a result of these processes, the natural historical development of society is carried out. It should be noted that there is no consensus among scientists regarding the periodization of the historical development of society. This is because scientists use various criteria in describing this process.

formational approach. In accordance with the formational approach, the historical development of society is reduced to the change of one socio-economic formation by another, more progressive one. The founders of the formational approach are Marxists. The history of the development of society, according to this approach, consists of five socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and

communist, consisting of two stages: socialism and communism. Each formation is based on a specific mode of production, representing the unity of productive forces and production relations.

Currently, the formational approach does not find a wide range of supporters in the scientific world. This is due to the fact that in a number of countries, primarily in Asia, this classification is generally not applicable to the process of historical development. Moreover, a person with his needs and values remains outside the formational approach. All this leads to the search for new criteria by which it is possible to analyze social development.

Stage approach. This approach arose within the framework of the historical school of one of the trends in economic thought in Germany in the 19th century. In the twentieth century, the theory of stages of economic growth was developed by the American scientist Walter Rostow. In his opinion, society goes through five stages in its development: traditional society (primitive technology, the predominance of agriculture in the economy, the dominance of large landowners); transitional society (centralized state, entrepreneurship); shear stage ( industrial Revolution); maturity stage (HTP, dominance of the urban population); the stage of mass consumption (the priority role of the service sector, the production of consumer goods). The main factor in the development of society, according to supporters of the theory of stages, are the productive forces. This concept is close in economic content to the theory of K. Marx.

civilizational approach. The name of this approach comes from the Latin word civilis civil, public. The essence of the civilizational approach lies in the fact that the historical movement of society is seen as the development of various stages (cycles) of civilization.

On the basis of a cyclical approach, various kinds of classifications are carried out. Of greatest interest is the theory of the cyclical development of society, the change of civilizations. In accordance with this concept, seven civilizations stand out in social development: the Neolithic, which lasted 30-35 centuries (in Russia, 20-30 centuries); eastern slave-owning - 20-30 centuries in the world (in Russia - 15-16); antique - 12-13 centuries in the world (in Russia 11-12); early feudal - 7 centuries in the world (in Russia - 7 centuries); pre-industrial - 4.5 centuries in the world (in Russia - 2.5); industrial - respectively 2.3 and 1.5 centuries; post-industrial - 1.3 centuries in the world (in Russia - 1.4).

The civilizational approach considers the development of society as a natural, evolutionary process. The focus of the theory under consideration is a person with his constantly growing needs, scientific, economic, cultural values.

Information approach. Modern economic thought (J. Galbraith, R. Aron, etc.), on the basis of such a criterion as the level of development of technology, distinguishes an industrial, post-industrial, non-industrial (information) society. According to this criterion, the most developed countries represent the information society. The highest level of development of science and technology, the use of information technologies make it possible to ensure not only economic growth, price stability and full employment, but also an effective system of social protection of the population, environmental safety, etc.

organizational approach. The classification of economic systems based on the method of organizing economic activity takes into account the following signs:

Form of ownership of factors of production;

Who and how makes the main economic decisions;

Method of coordination economic activity;

Motives that stimulate the conduct of economic activity. These criteria make it possible to distinguish the following economic systems: traditional economy, planned economy, market economy, transitional economy. Currently, this classification of economic systems is the most common.

Chapter 2 Crises in the development of socio-economic systems of society

2.1 General concepts of crises

The existence of socio-economic systems is a cyclical process, which is characterized by the regularity of the onset and resolution of crises. The socio-economic system, by which we can understand civil society, an economic entity (enterprise), an integrated business structure, has two main trends in existence: functioning and development. Functioning is the maintenance of life, the preservation of functions that determine the integrity of the system and its essential characteristics. Development is the acquisition of a new quality necessary for progressive changes, adaptation to new environmental conditions, which characterizes changes in objects, means of labor and in the person himself. The use of new synthetic materials, the development of microelectronics, robotics, information and biotechnology, the use of electronic technology in combination with machine tools and robots, all this is a source of a significant increase in labor productivity and the quality of manufactured material goods. However, on the other hand, updating the technological basis of social reproduction is one of the reasons that provoke cyclicality, and, consequently, crisis phenomena in the functioning of the system. The economy is never at rest. Prosperity is not infrequently replaced by collapse, national income, employment rates, output growth rates, as well as prices and profits fall. In the end, the bottom point is reached, and the revival begins again. At a higher turn of the unwinding spiral of history, more progressive than the previous stage, crises proceed with varying degrees of severity and their possible manifestations.

A crisis is an extreme aggravation of contradictions in a socio-economic system (organization), threatening its vitality in the environment. The crisis can also be understood as a stage in the development of the socio-economic system, necessary to eliminate stresses and imbalances in it. A situation may arise in which the mechanisms associated with the existing system of regulation are unable to change unfavorable market processes, when the contradictions that develop in the depths of important institutional forms that determine the mode of accumulation of material wealth become aggravated. In the course of a crisis, the most important regularities on which the organization of production, the prospects for the profitable use of capital, the distribution of value, and the structure of social demand are based, turn out to be unviable.

2.2 Typology of crises

Crises can be identified by the factors of their manifestation - the most significant indicators, parameters of the functioning of the system, indicating the presence of imbalance, sharp contradictions in it. In contrast to the factor, a symptom of a crisis is an initial sign of an impending problem, an indicator of the most vulnerable parties in the functioning of the system.

The typology of crises includes separate groups of economic, social, organizational, psychological, demographic, environmental, distributed in this way, according to the structure of relations in the socio-economic system, according to the problems of its development. Moreover, different types of crises can be represented as a chain in which the break of one link, i.e. the appearance of a factor of one of the types of crisis, entails the emergence of factors of other types.

Economic crises reflect sharp contradictions in the country's economy or the economic condition of an individual organization. These are crises of overproduction, falling sales, contradictions in the relationship of economic agents of the market, crises of non-payments, losses competitive advantage and business failures.

The main factors of the economic crisis are the reduction in the total volume of industrial production, production capacity, rising inflation, hyperinflation, a decrease in GDP, foreign trade turnover, a fall in securities prices, a collapse in agriculture, a decrease in the innovative activity of enterprises, an increase in the number of company bankruptcies.

Political crises are characterized by sharp contradictions in the political structure of society, affecting the interests of various social groups, ruling elites, and opposition parties. The factors of political crises are: a sharp decrease in the legitimacy of power, its depreciation in the eyes of citizens, the lack of the ability of the authorities to manage the processes taking place in society, a change in the ruling elite, the resignation of the government, "ministerial leapfrog", a sharp aggravation of social conflicts, acquiring a pronounced political character. An acute political crisis can proceed as: constitutional and legal, associated with the termination or restriction of the country's fundamental law; the crisis of the party system, caused by a split in the parties, the leading social forces; government crisis associated with the restriction or impossibility of state-administrative influence; foreign policy crisis caused by the growth of external threats, wars, the fall of the international prestige of the country.

Social crises arise when contradictions aggravate and the interests of various social groups clash and are often a continuation of economic crises, because the latter are accompanied by such negative social manifestations as a drop in employment, an increase in prices for consumer goods, lowering the standard of living of citizens, reducing government spending on education and health. The main factors of social crises are: a significant decrease in the quality of life of citizens, unemployment, poverty, an increase in the number of serious diseases, a worsening crime situation, brain drain, corruption in society, a complete destruction of the value system, including spiritual ones. A kind of social crisis is a demographic crisis, the negative manifestations of which are the excess of death rates over birth rates, negative migration processes that cause an outflow of qualified specialists, a shortage of productive personnel in the economy, and adverse changes in the sex and age structure of the population.

In the most direct way, social and demographic crises are associated with psychological crises, which are most clearly manifested during periods of great changes in society, in conditions of instability and a fall in the standard of living of people. Factors of a psychological crisis: this is the emergence of neuroses that are becoming widespread, the growth of citizens' dissatisfaction with their social status, emotional emptiness in people, fatigue from change, exacerbation of feelings of insecurity, fear, a massive increase in the number of cardiovascular and other diseases due to increasing stress, deterioration in social -psychological climate in society (in the enterprise team). In business, the psychological crisis manifests itself as a lack of desire among entrepreneurs to invest in business, production, disbelief in the improvement of the situation, the desire to withdraw capital from the country.

In the organizational structure of the socio-economic system, relations associated with structural construction, division and integration of activities, distribution of functions, regulation of the activities of divisions, administrative units, regions, branches, subsidiaries, and representative offices can be aggravated. Organizational crises arise. Their main factors are: stagnation and bureaucratization of structures, more frequent conflicts between departments, managers of different levels of management, confusion, irresponsibility, chaos and loss of control over a number of structural units. As well as the outflow of resources and serious problems in the financial and economic activities of the organization due to the intentional or erroneous actions of some administrators, imbalance common system management, reducing the level of coordination and integration of the activities of different services.

Environmental crises are caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, fires, climate change, floods, and often they are the results of human activity.

Crises can be obvious and easily detected, or they can be subtle and go in a hidden form. The most dangerous crises affect the system as a whole. In such a situation, a string of complex problems is formed, the solution of which depends on the timeliness of their identification and professionalism in the management of an organization, municipality, state.

The causes of the crisis can be: objective ones related to the cyclical development of the system, the needs of modernization, restructuring, the impact of external factors, and subjective reflecting the mistakes of managers in management, shortcomings in the organization of production, imperfection of innovation and investment policy.

The consequences of the crisis are the possible states of the system, situations and problems that are characterized by: abrupt changes or consistent transformation, renewal of the organization or its destruction, recovery or the emergence of a new crisis. The consequences of the crisis are determined by its nature, type, level of manifestation of negative cyclical factors, the choice of anti-crisis management methods, which can smooth out negative trends, help overcome adverse factors, or, on the contrary, provoke a new crisis.

Anti-crisis management is a set of methods and techniques that make it possible to recognize crises, carry out their prevention, overcome their negative consequences, and smooth out the course of the crisis.

Anti-crisis management technology includes a number of successive steps to implement the mechanism of influencing the system in order to prevent, mitigate and overcome crises different types. It is important for a crisis management manager to have a systematic vision, to be able to fully embrace a number of interrelated problems that, for example, can lead an organization to bankruptcy, or drastically worsen the social situation of people. Methods of anti-crisis management at the level of state regulation include: the development of normative, legislative acts, the definition of a directed financial and social policy, the promotion of small businesses, the innovative activity of enterprises and the country's competitiveness in the world market. At the level of organization management, crisis management is the development of strategies that allow achieving competitive advantages in the market, taking into account risks; formation of an anti-crisis team of managers and implementation of a program to overcome the crisis; carrying out activities aimed at attracting financial resources to the organization and restructuring accounts payable; timely resolution of conflicts and selection of the optimal personnel policy, reorganization at a difficult stage of bankruptcy.

Professor A.G. Gryaznova in the book "Anti-crisis management" characterizes anti-crisis management as an enterprise management system that has a complex, systemic character. It is aimed at preventing or eliminating adverse events for business through the use of the full potential of modern management, the development and implementation of a special program at the enterprise, which is of a strategic nature, allowing to eliminate temporary difficulties, maintain and increase market positions under any circumstances, relying mainly on its own resources.

2.3 Cycles of social reproduction and their role in the occurrence of economic crises

In the development of socio-economic systems, a significant role is played by the chosen method of production, management, methods of creating material wealth and distributing resources. Therefore, it is so important to study economic crises that affect almost all spheres of society. The collapse of securities on the stock exchange, the ruin of companies, inflation, the fall in the standard of living of the population, open clashes between classes or social groups, conflicts of opposition political forces, the growth of organized crime - these are the factors of one interconnected process, the course of which is often provoked by an economic crisis. Its causes, which seemed to be clear to everyone, are often hidden "pitfalls", the appearance of which is due to the cyclical development of the socio-economic system.

The classical cycle of social reproduction includes four main stages: crisis, depression, recovery, recovery. In Western economic theories 1 the concepts of "expansion" (expansion) and "compression" are often used. The expansion phase is replaced by a contraction phase at the so-called "upper turning point", or "top". In the same way, the contraction phase ends and opens the way for expansion at the "bottom turning point" or "revitalization" point. Thus, there is a successive change of the four phases of the cycle: contraction, revival, expansion, the top of the expansion.

The first phase is a crisis, which can also be characterized as a contraction. There is a reduction in the total volume of industrial production, business activity, the processes of falling prices, overstocking, there is a significant increase in the number of bankruptcies, unemployment, as well as a decrease real income population, compression bank loan, reduction of foreign trade turnover. Particularly hard hit are industries supplying capital goods to the market, whose consumers can stop buying indefinitely. There is a significant reduction in production capacities in the branches of mechanical engineering, metallurgy, instrument making, and electronics. Industries supplying commodities of daily use may not see a significant reduction in production.

The second phase of the social reproduction cycle is depression. It represents a phase of stagnation in the economy, the adaptation of economic life to new conditions and needs. It is characterized by the uncertain actions of entrepreneurs who do not want to invest significant resources in the business. Capital is flowing abroad. In Western economic science, this phase corresponds to a revival associated with the stabilization of prices and economic conditions. Indicators, as it were, reach the bottom of the decline and begin to slowly rise. The situation is stabilizing, preparing for expansion, the growth of indicators of socio-economic development.

The third phase is a revival, it is characterized by: the growth of capital investments, prices, production volumes, employment levels, indicators interest rates. The expansion covers industries that supply the means of production. New enterprises are being created, a mass of new products is emerging, prices of securities, interest rates, prices and wages are rising. Economic growth is approaching the highest point of development, accompanied by the intensification of scientific and technical research.

The fourth phase - the rise, or the "peak of expansion" is characterized by a significant increase in all indicators of socio-economic development: GDP, trade turnover, innovative activity of enterprises, the level of technological equipment of the country, competitive advantages of companies in the world market, banking margins, etc. The highest point of prosperity is coming , which again entails compression. Tensions are rising bank balance sheets, commodity stocks are increasing, the aggregate effective demand is gradually declining.

The decline in production begins again, there is a reduction in employment and incomes of the population. The upsurge, which brings the economy to a new level in its progressive development, prepares the basis for a new, periodic crisis. The factors that cause the initial reduction in aggregate demand can be very different: the replacement of worn-out equipment, a decrease in the purchase of raw materials, materials, a drop in demand for certain types of products, an increase in taxes and credit interest, law violation monetary circulation, wars, various political events, unforeseen situations. All this can break the existing market equilibrium and give impetus to another economic crisis.

Why does a crisis occur? It is known that there is a gap between the production and consumption of goods. Not without reason the first crisis took place in England in 1825, where by that time capitalism had become dominant. social order. The volume of factory production increased, but the solvent demand of workers and peasants was extremely low. The modern economy is monetary. There are a number of additional factors that can provoke cyclicity. A vivid example is the default of 1998, when the crisis was the result of a policy of debt borrowing, and the signal for its beginning was the fall in the rates of government securities placed on world markets.

2.4 Main theories of economic crises

Theories explaining cyclicity can be reduced to two large groups: external (external) and internal (internal) theories.

External theories explain the cycle by the influence of external factors: wars, important political events, discoveries of new deposits, the demographic situation, scientific and technical discoveries, innovations, and even bursts of solar activity.

Internal theories focus on the mechanism within the economic system itself that gives impetus to a self-perpetuating business cycle. Expansion, reaching the highest point of flowering, gives rise to contraction, and contraction, reaching the lowest limit, leads to rebirth and activity. For example, if a sharp jump in economic growth has begun, then within a short period of time a huge amount of new capital goods will be produced. A few years later, these goods, for example, machines, machine tools, equipment, will be worn out. They will begin to be replaced, and this will give an impetus to inflation, and so on.

Most modern economists stand on the positions of synthesizing external and internal theories. In explaining the longest cycles, they give decisive importance to the fluctuations in investment and production of capital goods. The initial cause of unstable and changeable fluctuations in the cycle are external factors, such as: technical innovations, demographic situation, political upheavals, etc. However, the frequency and regularity of cycles depend on internal factors, such as total net investment, output growth rate, employment . Let's say inventions and scientific discoveries do not directly affect the cycle, but their economic use does affect the level of business activity.

Consider a number of economic theories that explain the reasons economic cycles and crises, while setting different priorities.

The point of view of K. Marx is well known, who saw the main cause of cyclicity in the contradiction between the social nature of production and the private nature of the appropriation of its results, since in a capitalist economy material goods are produced by the majority of society, and consumed by a minority.

An alternative to this point of view can be considered the theory of underconsumption (Joan Robinson, Hobson, Foster, Catchings), which explains cyclicality by a lack of consumption. Underconsumption causes overproduction of goods and provokes a crisis. The main way to prevent crises is to stimulate consumption.

Proponents of the theory of overinvestment, on the contrary, believe that the cause of the cycle is overinvestment rather than underinvestment (Hayek, Mises, etc.). The influx of investments accelerates expansion, causing disproportions in the system of the financial and economic mechanism of the system.

Existing theories of disproportionality, or "non-equilibrium" (F. von Hayek) explain crises by the lack of correct proportions between industries, spontaneous actions of entrepreneurs, state intervention in market relations. The "political business cycle" theory is based on the fact that there is an inverse relationship between the unemployment rate and the inflation rate, which is determined by the Phillips curve, i.e., unemployment decreases and prices rise. The ruling party is trying to vary the inflation rate and the unemployment rate by lowering them in order to win in the upcoming elections. After coming to power, the administration tries to reduce the rate of price growth by artificially provoking crisis phenomena, and by the end of its rule, the authorities begin to solve the opposite task - to raise the level of employment. The latter causes prices to rise, but the calculation is made on the fact that by the elections the level of employment will rise, and inflation will not have time to gain full strength.

The relationship between market institutions, the state, the mode of accumulation of goods, the internal mechanism for regulating these complex processes and crises is analyzed in the theories of regulation (M. Aglietta, R. Boyer, A. Bertrand, A. Lipets). Proponents of this scientific direction consider both the internal mechanism of management and external factors: wars, clashes between social groups, existing social forms of the system's functioning. Psychological theories explain the cycle by changing the mood of the masses, influencing investment. Thus, the panic and confusion of the crisis state lead to the stagnation of capital investments, the withdrawal of capital abroad, and a positive attitude in the face of an upturn stimulates the growth of investments.

A significant place among the factors influencing the cyclicity belongs to the trends in the development of scientific and technological progress. Innovation theories explain the cycle by using important innovations in production (Schumpeter, Hansen, Kondratiev). active part fixed capital becomes morally obsolete within 10-12 years. This requires its renewal, and further stimulates economic recovery. Economists emphasize the importance of capital formation as the initial phenomenon of the cycle. In a cycle, some economic variables always fluctuate more than others. For example, cycle fluctuations in the food industry can be barely noticeable when a decline in the production of steel, iron, machinery or tractors is obvious. The industries producing durable goods or capital goods show the greatest cyclical fluctuations.

The well-known Russian economist N. D. Kondratiev (1892-1938) considered the cause of long cycles to be radical changes in the technological base of social production, its structural restructuring. Kondratiev made analytical comparisons of the series economic indicators characterizing the dynamics of the world capitalist economy. Research led him to develop the concept of "long waves" of capitalist reproduction. Summarizing the huge statistical material, Kondratiev proved that along with the well-known small cycles of capitalist reproduction lasting 8-10 years, there are large reproduction cycles - 48-55 years. In them, Kondratiev singled out two phases, or two waves - upward and downward.

The Austrian economist I. Schumpeter, studying business cycles, substantiated the concept that the main driving force behind the long-term fluctuations of the capitalist economy are construction cycles, which have an average duration of 17-18 years. Simon Kuznets and Raymond Goldsmith singled out 20-year construction (reproduction) cycles, the driving forces of which are shifts in the reproductive structure of production. Along with reproduction and construction cycles, small cycles are distinguished, which are explained by the interaction of various monetary factors, the dynamics of fluctuations in the value of inventories at enterprises, and other factors. In general, economists note a reduction in the frequency of cycles due to the acceleration of the renewal of fixed capital under the influence of scientific and technological achievements in the modern world.

The study of the cyclical nature of social reproduction is important not only for understanding the nature of economic crises, but also for preventing them, mitigating their negative manifestations, predicting fluctuations in investment and production volumes, and developing a strategy for state regulation of the economy. Thus, the decision to invest in any area will become more reasonable and less risky if upward and downward waves are taken into account.

Enterprises, when making decisions regarding investment and production volume, proceed from assumptions about future prospects. If, in their opinion, the next period will bring a depression, they will seek to reduce investment now. On the contrary, if they expect that prices will increase significantly in six months, they will rush today to buy goods, buy equipment and expand construction. Management Success economic crises depends on timely and adequate actions of the state apparatus of managers, entrepreneurs and investors.

Conclusion

An ordered set of elements with organization, relative isolation and the ability to perform a number of functions that cannot be performed by its individual elements is a system. To characterize any system, its elements, levels of organization, structure and functions are usually distinguished.

The economy is a complex, multi-level, developing system. The economic system of a society consists of small economic systems - households, individual enterprises, groups of interconnected enterprises, industries and divisions, etc.

Any economic or other system is part of a larger system. For example, an enterprise as an economic system is connected with the activities of the industry as a whole, intersectoral economic systems, with the economic system of society, and the latter, in turn, is connected through international specialization with the economic systems of societies in other countries.

The economic system can be considered and analyzed at different levels: it can be the level of a firm (enterprise), the level of macroeconomics or the world economy. For each level, its characteristic features can be determined, due to the specifics of the functioning of a business entity, production system or subsystem. However, there may be common features that characterize both the economic system as a whole and its individual links. So, a feature of the economy can be whether the economy is open or closed from external influences. If the national economy and its links are actively linked to the system of international economic relations, such an economic system is considered open. An open company is a company participating in labor cooperation, carrying out scientific, technical, commercial or other cooperation with other firms, corporations, etc. If the system is closed on internal resources of production and is limited to internal consumption, there is a closed system. We can say that the world economy was closed in relation to the world economy. socialist system management, because cooperation in it was limited by the framework of the system itself.

Thus, the economic system can be defined as a stable set of economic subsystems and elements, the interaction of which ensures the reproduction of the necessary conditions for the life of society. It has a complex structure and includes a variety of economic processes taking place in society, property relations operating in it, organizational forms, institutions and economic resources involved in economic circulation.

List of used literature

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2. Borisov E.F. Economic theory: Textbook. - M.: Yurayt-Izdat, 2007. - 399 p.

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4. Kulikov A.M. Fundamentals of economic theory: Proc. allowance. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2008. - 400 p.

5. Course of economic theory: General foundations of economic theory. Microeconomics. Macroeconomics. Fundamentals of the national economy: Proc. allowance / Ed. Dan. prof. A.V. Sidorovich; Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov. - M.: "Business and Service". 2007. - 832 p.

6. Course of economic theory: Textbook for universities / Mosk. state. institute of international relationships; under general ed. Chepurina M.N., Kiseleva E.A. - Kirov: ASA, 2008. - 832 p.

7. World economy. Economy foreign countries: Textbook / Ed. Dr. Econ. sciences, prof. V.P. Kolesov and Dr. Econ. sciences, prof. M.N. Osmova. - M.: Flinta: Moscow Psychological and Social Institute, 2009. - 480 p.

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9. Economic theory: Proc. manual for university students /G.V. Andriyanov, L.G. Orlova, V.V. Pranovich and others; Ed. N.V. Sumtsova. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2009. - 287 p.

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Course of economic theory: General foundations of economic theory. Microeconomics. Macroeconomics. Fundamentals of the national economy: Proc. allowance / Ed. Dan. prof. A.V. Sidorovich; Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov. - M.: "Business and Service". 2001. - S. 327.

Course of Economic Theory: Textbook for High Schools / Mosk. state. institute of international relationships; under the general editorship. Chepurina M.N., Kiseleva E.A. - Kirov: ASA, 2008. - S. 153.

Nosova S.S. Economic theory: Textbook / S.S. Nosova. - M.: Humanit. ed. Center Vlados, 2007. - S. 143.

Economic theory: Proc. allowance / Ed. N.G. Kuznetsova - M .: ICC "MarT", Rostov n / a; Publishing house Center "March", 2009. - S. 189.

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

In reality, there are specific economic systems with their own specific features and properties. They are studied by economic theory at the levels of microeconomics - enterprises and firms, macroeconomics - the national economy (national economy) and intereconomics - the world economic system. Description and presentation of the specific features of each specific economic system is impossible without elucidating the general qualitative properties inherent in all economic systems, allowing you to form a holistic view of the economic phenomena and processes taking place in society, and avoid repetition in the future.

An economic system (from Gr. systema - a whole made up of parts), like any other, consists of elements - a relatively indivisible part of an object. The elements of the system are interconnected and interact, as a result of which integrative qualities are formed that are not inherent in each element separately. Therefore, the properties of an economic system differ from a simple sum of the properties that make up the elements. For example, the means of production (machines, machines, equipment) and people, taken separately, have their own, only inherent properties. Combining technologically and economically, they form a new quality - social production. The quality of the system as such forms its integrity - the most important property that ensures a relatively independent, isolated existence of the system.

The economic system of society is characterized by the following characteristics: content, structure, main types.

The concept of the economic system of society. The structure of the economic system. Productive forces and production relations

economic system- a complex ordered set of all economic relations and types of economic activity of a society, realized through the functioning of the productive forces and carried out in the forms of certain production and social relations and social institutions, the purpose of which is to satisfy the needs of society in material goods and services.

Features of the economic system:

1. Interaction of factors of production (labor, capital, land and entrepreneurial abilities).

2. The unity of the phases of reproduction: production, distribution, exchange, consumption.

3. The leading place of property relations in the economic system. Properties of the economic system:

integrity, i.e. in relation to the environment, the economic system acts as a unity;

integrativity, which consists in combining the links between all the components of the system, its components;

expediency, i.e. the orientation of the economic system towards a specific goal;

self-reproduction, i.e. the ability of the system to self-preserve and self-renew;

ability to develop, i.e. the ability to reproduce itself at a higher level.

The driving forces of an economic system are a combination of certain factors that, interacting, contribute to its formation and development. The main elements of economic relations are:

needs.

interests.

competitiveness (rivalry). [ 3,51]

A significant influence on the functioning of the economic system is exerted by its external environment, everything that is outside the system (natural and social environment).

The natural environment is the main supplier of energy, raw materials and food resources. Favorable weather conditions (good climate, availability of a variety of minerals) reduce society's costs and contribute to the successful development of the economy, while unfavorable ones require an increase in fuel, clothing, and food costs.

The social environment - the social structure, the type of political power, the system of laws governing economic activity has a direct impact on the goals, structure, and functions of the economic system. At the same time, the economic system itself affects the external environment. Its impact on nature and society is so powerful, often even irreversible, that ecology and social cataclysms become a global problem for all mankind.

An important property of an economic system is the presence of a structure. In the structure of the economic system, two levels are distinguished - micro and macro levels. They correspond to two levels of analysis, at each of which the researcher can derive laws relating to the behavior of economic entities. The object at the micro level is the enterprise, it is subject to microeconomic analysis. When analyzing at the macro level, we are talking either about the national economy as a whole, or about its main subdivisions, such as the government sector, households, and the private sector. In some educational publications, the so-called mesa level is distinguished, which is reduced to the level of the industry.

There are many different actors in the economic system:

firms (enterprises).

households.

state.

Enterprises differ from other entities in that they are the place where the means of production are combined with the labor force. Enterprises, like the state and households, are economically isolated and therefore can be considered as parts of the economic system. The role of enterprises is determined by their functions, the main of which are the production of goods and services.

Households in the economic system act as small producers, suppliers of labor. Their main function is the consumption of final products and services produced by enterprises.

A special role in the economic system belongs to the state:

1) the state determines the priorities for the development of the system, goals, allocates resources to achieve these goals, determines the possible return on the use of resources and possible consequences.

2) the state creates a legal framework for the effective functioning of the economy, ensures the protection of the rights of the owner; creates a monetary system, regulates relations between producers and consumers;

3) the state influences the elements and parts of the economic system in order to maintain their functioning in the given parameters or change these parameters in the direction necessary for the state;

4) the state takes measures to socially protect the population from unemployment, inflation and other consequences of a market economy through the redistribution of income.

In any economic system, there are two types of relationships: the relationship of people to nature and the relationship of people to each other. In accordance with this, with a certain degree of conditionality, two large subsystems can be distinguished: productive forces and production relations.

productive forces- a set of personal and material factors of production in their interaction.

The productive forces perform the functions of development and transformation of nature, the exchange of substances between man and nature to ensure the conditions for the existence of society.

Elements of productive forces:

1. People (total workers).

2. Means of production (system of means of production).

The productive forces are studied by different sciences: technical and technological, engineering psychology, labor physiology, etc. Economic theory studies the social nature of the productive forces, their level and nature, structure and functions.

The level of productive forces is determined by:

the height of the qualification, general educational, cultural and technical level of the total worker of the society.

the degree of development of technology and means of labor;

the level of scientific achievements introduced into production, the scale of mastering the forces of nature.

The nature of the productive forces, in contrast to the level that expresses their technological side, gives an idea of the social organization of the productive forces, indicates their connection with the division and cooperation of labor, the degree of socialization of the means of production. Therefore, the level of productive forces in different countries may be the same, but the character will be different.

The structure of the productive forces:

1. Material productive forces are a combination of personal and material factors of production in their interconnection and interaction. Society is not free to choose its material productive forces. People inherit from previous generations both the means of production and production experience.

2. Since the means of production can be included in social production only when living labor is applied to them, the main productive force is people with their knowledge, experience, skills for work, which are components of the spiritual productive forces. The latter also includes science, which today is turning into a general social productive force.

3. The social productive forces also include the productive power of joint labor, due to the division and cooperation of labor. This type of productive forces reflects their social nature, since both components - people and means of production - can become such only when they are included in the system of production, economic relations.

In the process of labor, on the basis of the relationship of people to nature, certain relations of people to each other are formed. Since they are conditioned by the production of material and spiritual goods, as well as services, they are called relations of production.

Relations of production- these are real, objective relations of people to each other, social conditions for the production of material and spiritual goods and services, and economic relations.

Subjects of industrial relations:

social groups.

work teams.

individuals.

society.

The reason for the emergence of relations between subjects are their inherent needs and interests. Needs are usually viewed as a need for something, a condition for existence. Interests - an objective orientation of people's activities to meet their needs. To do this, people enter into joint production activities and exchange this activity, i.e. enter into industrial relations. The interaction of various, multidirectional interests of subjects forms an economic contradiction. It is characteristic of every production relation and acts as a source of its self-movement.

Qualities of industrial relations:

Objectivity means their existence independent of the will and desire of people. The peculiarity of production relations lies in the fact that they can be implemented only in the subjective actions of the participants in production.

Materiality is manifested in the derivative nature of relations from the division and organization of labor in society.

Historicity is the belonging of production relations to a specific economic system, their development in time.

Ownership in the economic system

FROM property - the economic basis of the system of society, its main element. It determines the economic way of connecting the worker with the means of production, the purpose of the functioning and development of the economic system, the social structure of society, the nature of the incentives for labor activity, the way the results of labor are distributed.

Taking on the surface of phenomena the appearance of a person's relationship to a thing (the thing is mine or the thing is not mine), property is always the relation of the "owner" to the "non-owner". The reason is the division of labor, which encourages people to exchange activities and their results and enter into a relationship of appropriation and alienation. If appropriation means the possibility of owning, disposing and using the object of property at one's own discretion, then alienation is the deprivation of such an opportunity.

There are different approaches to property in Marxist and classical economic theory.

According to the Marxist approach, property occupies the main place in a particular mode of production, and their change is carried out in accordance with the change in the dominant forms of ownership. Marxism saw the main evil of capitalism in the existence of private property. Therefore, he associated the reformation of bourgeois society with the replacement of private property with public (public) property. The implementation of this approach in practice has led to the substitution of public ownership of the state, to the total nationalization of property and management. As a result, a super-monopolized economy appeared, the main features of which are hidden unemployment, suppressed inflation, the absence of economic motives for work, a general shortage of goods and services, the dominance of social dependency, etc. Therefore, the transition to a more efficient, market type of economy requires the replacement of monopoly state ownership of its non-state species. [ 1,27]

In Western economic theory, the concept of property is associated with the limited resources compared to the needs for them. This contradiction is resolved by excluding access to resources, which provides ownership. FROM Ownership is the right to control the use of certain resources and share the resulting costs and benefits.

Subjects and objects of property are distinguished.

The subjects of ownership are the bearer of properties, characteristic features and powers that determine the features of the use of the object. These include:

individuals - individual individuals who own consumer goods, means of production, other property.

collectives are an association of people who jointly own, manage and use this property.

society (state) - the largest subject of ownership, it manages and disposes of property belonging to all citizens of a given country. [ 4,80]

Objects of property - this is what the property relations are about (means of production, commodities, resources, labor). Thus, according to the Law on Property in the Republic of Belarus, the objects of property are land, its subsoil, water, airspace, buildings, structures, equipment, flora and fauna, the results of intellectual work, information, money, securities and other property. [ 1,27]

The composition of property objects does not remain unchanged. It changes under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the development of productive forces. Material goods are increasingly being replaced by objects of intellectual property: discoveries, inventions, scientific knowledge, information. At the same time, no matter how the objects of property change, among them one can always single out the main, key ones, the possession of which gives real economic power. These include the means of production. Their owner is the real owner of production and its results.

There are two types of property: private and public.

Private property expresses the relations of appropriation of means and results of production by private individuals.

Types of private property:

1. Labor: from entrepreneurial labor activity, from running one's own economy and other forms based on the work of this person.

2. Unearned: from receiving property by inheritance, dividends from shares, bonds and other securities, income from funds invested in credit institutions, and other sources not related to labor activity.

Public ownership means the joint appropriation of the means and results of production.

Types of public property:

collective (subject of ownership - a team of workers).

state (subject of ownership - all citizens of the country).

Forms of collective ownership:

1. Collective (people's) - the result of the transfer of all property of a state enterprise into the hands of the collective, the redemption of leased property.

2. Cooperative - a kind of collective property, the common property of all members of the cooperative who have pooled their funds and labor to carry out joint production or other activities.

3. Joint-stock (the most common in a market economy) - the result of combining capital for joint activities, the sale of shares and bonds, as well as economic activities.3,64

The subject of state property is all the people of a given country. Management and disposal of property here is carried out on behalf of the people by state authorities. The peculiarity of this type of property is the indivisibility of its objects between subjects - taxpayers. In different countries, state property occupies a different share. In countries with a state-owned economy, for example, in the former USSR, it was up to 90% or more. In countries with market economies, its share is much smaller. [ 1,29]

In the Republic of Belarus, there are all considered types and forms of ownership. Its features include the presence of two forms of state ownership: republican and communal. The subject of republican property is the entire population of the republic. The property of the republic includes land, its subsoil, republican banks, funds of the republican budget, enterprises and national economic complexes, educational institutions, and other property. Communal (municipal) property expresses relations regarding the property of the association of citizens living in regions, districts and other administrative-territorial entities. It includes local budget funds, housing stock, trade enterprises, consumer services, transport, industrial and construction enterprises, institutions of public education, culture and other property.

In addition, according to the Law on Property in the Republic, there may be property of other states, their legal entities and individuals, as well as property of international organizations. It is also allowed to combine property belonging to different forms of ownership, and on this basis to form its mixed forms, including joint ownership belonging to different countries.

Classification of economic systems

Economic systems from the moment of their inception to the present day have gone through a significant evolutionary path of development. Therefore, by now there are many different kinds and types of them, differing in the ways of social division of labor and its organization, forms of ownership, types of coordination of system elements and other features. In economic theory, the classification of economic systems is carried out on the basis of defining features that make it possible to distinguish between systems. [ 1,29]

The Marxist approach to the classification of economic systems is based on the doctrine of socio-economic formation. Formation is a historically defined type of society based on a specific mode of production as a dialectical unity of productive forces and production relations.

The basis of the gradation of economic systems, Karl Marx put the property relations and the system of production relations.

Gradation of formations (economic systems):

primitive communal.

slaveholding.

feudalism.

capitalism.

communism.

In Western economic theory, the views on the delimitation of economic systems in accordance with the level of development of the productive forces have become most widespread. The founder of this theory is the American economist W. Rostow. he identifies five economic systems

Traditional society - it was based on agricultural production, there was low labor productivity (until the 17th century)

Transitional society - science, craft, market are developing, production efficiency is growing. The transition from the traditional system to a higher type of economy of an industrial society. (17th-18th centuries)

The economic system of "shift", which is characterized by a significant increase in capital investment, ... (take - off)

A society of economic maturity: production and its efficiency are growing rapidly, the entire national economy is developing.

A society of high mass consumption: production begins to work for the consumer; the leading position is occupied by industries producing durable goods.

Classification of modern economic systems:

1. Pure capitalism (economy of free competition): the predominance of private ownership of the means and product of production, the absence of state intervention. In such a system, the interests of sellers and buyers, producers and consumers are coordinated by the market mechanism. It is he who determines what, how much and for whom to produce. Such an economy knows no deficit.

2. Command economy (planned-directive): all decisions concerning the production, distribution of the product are made centrally and implemented according to commands descending from top to bottom down the hierarchical management ladder. "Top" reports on the execution of the command. In such an economic system, the state form of ownership of almost all means of production and resources dominates. Therefore, it is characterized by a comprehensive state monopoly, covering all phases of production and reproduction, as well as strict centralized regulation of the entire economy. The market is assigned a formal role, since sellers and buyers are predetermined by the center, and prices are set centrally. This type of economy was typical for the former USSR and some countries that took the planned-directive model of development as a basis.

3. Mixed types of economic systems. Some of them are closer to pure capitalism, others are closer to a command economy. The difference lies in the degree of government intervention in the economy. So, for example, the market economy of France and Japan is characterized by advanced planning, the active influence of the state on market processes. Other mixed types of economy are characterized by a high degree of social protection of workers from the negative consequences of the market, which is why they are called socially oriented systems. Such, for example, is the economy of Sweden and some other countries. There are mixed systems that combine public ownership of resources and the market mechanism of regulation (Yugoslavian market socialism).

4. Traditional economy. It has existed in the history of mankind for a long time and is partially preserved in certain countries, for example, in India. Production here is based on traditions and customs. For example, in a medieval Indian village, all residents were divided into castes: priests, warriors, artisans and servants. No one could freely choose a profession for himself, but had to inherit his father's occupation. Customs dictated the timing and order of agricultural work, the methods of artisans. The technology of the production process was strictly fixed by special rules, and improvements were prohibited. Technological progress in such conditions was impossible, and therefore labor productivity remained unchanged, as it was hundreds of years ago. Customs also established the procedure for the distribution and exchange of products of production. The traditional economy is characterized by a high degree of conservatism, as technical, economic progress conflicts with established customs and threatens the stability of society. [ 1,31] [

Tab. one. Comparative characteristics of various economic systems.

Main features	Market economy	Command-administrative economy	mixed economy
The scale of the socialization of production	Socialization of production within the enterprise	Expropriation of labor private property, forcible association of private commodity producers into collective farms and state farms	Socialization and stateization of part of the economy on a national and international scale
Dominant form of ownership	Economic activity of individual entrepreneurs - capitalists	State property dominates	Economic activity based on collective, private and state property
Form of budget constraint	tough	soft	Various socially regulated
Incentive for productivity	Factor income	socialist competition	Factor income
Basic principle of production	The principle of matching supply and demand	The will of the central authority, materializing the adopted political and ideological decisions	The principle of matching supply and demand
Economic regulation	Self-regulation of individual capitals on the basis of a free market with little state intervention	Tight control by a centralized state that completely monopolized the economy and power	Active state regulation of the national economy to stimulate consumer demand and supply, prevent crises and unemployment, etc.
competition	there is	No	there is
Shadow economy	No	there is	Only for goods prohibited by the state (drugs)
coordination	The role of coordinating the actions of economic entities and the distribution of goods in the economy is performed by the market mechanism and, above all, the price system.	The rules and parameters of economic behavior in the appropriate distribution of goods are determined by the influence of the commanding subsystem, which is the state	The role of coordination of actions of economic entities and distribution of goods is determined by the market mechanism and government regulation
pricing	Focuses on preventing a downturn in production	Government sets fixed prices	Flexible prices
Wage	It is established in the process of competition with the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market	Administrative payroll	It is established in the process of competition with the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market, but the state sets the minimum wage.
Social guarantees	Social Insecurity of citizens in case of unemployment, sickness and old age	Guaranteed employment, free healthcare and education, social security	Establishment of public and private social insurance and social security funds

Functioning and development of economic systems. Economic progress and its criteria

The economy of any country is a huge, complex, very dynamic system. For example, in such a relatively small republic as Belarus, there are hundreds and thousands of industrial, construction, and agricultural enterprises that produce a huge number of products.

The economy transforms natural resources into material goods and services that satisfy social needs. However, for the functioning of the economic system, natural resources alone are not enough. It is also necessary to use the so-called economic resources: labor and means of production, which include transformed natural resources in the form of fuel, land, etc. If natural resources are external in relation to the economic system, then economic resources are internal components of the system itself.

Criteria for the functioning of the economic system:

1. External - the degree of satisfaction of social needs.

2. Internal - the amount of resource costs.

They are closely interrelated: the growth of needs necessitates the development of production, which leads to the emergence of new artificial materials, energy sources, means of production, expanding the range of resources used. At the same time, the growth of needs, the limited resources encourage them to save in every possible way, which corresponds to the internal criterion.

The constant need to meet needs requires repeating the production process over and over again, so the economic system operates in reproduction mode. Since goods and services are produced in the form of commodities, in every economy two streams move towards each other: goods and money.

The flow of money is moving towards the flow of goods. Its core is the monetary system of the state, which accumulates, distributes and redistributes money. Through this system, the state accumulates part of the funds of enterprises and households in the form of taxes, money in the accounts of state banks. These funds are spent on the maintenance (full or partial) of education, health care, national defense, radio and television broadcasting, pensions, benefits for the unemployed and the poor, subsidies to unprofitable but socially significant enterprises and other purposes. Enterprises, receiving revenue from sold products, spend it on the wages of hired workers and employees, the payment of dividends, the payment of acquired resources, the payment of taxes to the state and other purposes. Households receive income in the form of wages, interest, rent, profits from family businesses. They spend money on the purchase of durable and short-term goods, services, including those provided by the state, paying taxes, etc. In addition, all subjects of the economic system receive a loan and return it along with interest.

The above diagram of the functioning of a modern market regulated system is very simplified, largely conditional, but it gives a general idea of the movement of goods and money in the economy.

At the same time, the economic system not only functions, but also develops. It has its beginning and its end, it passes into a new system with other qualitative characteristics. However, if the components that make up the system are physically short-lived (people die, grow old, buildings, structures, equipment wear out and collapse), then the system itself lives much longer than its components. This is explained by the ability of the system to reproduce, to constantly update its constituent functional connections and relationships.

The reason for the self-renewal and development of the economic system is its inherent economic contradictions. The main source of development of the economic system is the contradiction between the growth of needs and the possibilities of satisfying them.

Since needs grow faster than the means of satisfying them appear, the latter act as an intermediate moment, and the contradiction as a temporary solution and constantly recurring.

The development of the economic system underlies economic progress - the movement from a lower economic state of society to a higher one.

Progress is characterized by a larger set and better quality composition of goods and services produced, higher production efficiency. Economic progress can be summarized as follows. It is based on the development of material productive forces. Improving the means and organization of labor leads to an increase in its productivity. As a result, the manufactured product increases, which makes it possible to improve the quality of labor force training and create the necessary conditions for expanded reproduction. The new material and technical basis brings to life new knowledge and skills of workers and changes the existing social division of labor. Along with the progress of technology and ahead of it, the development of science is developing, turning into a direct productive force by translating its achievements into more advanced technologies and tools of production. At the same time, the volume and structure of needs are expanding, the ways of satisfying them and the way of life are changing. A more complex form of production relations contributes to a higher level of development of the productive forces. The role of man in production, his knowledge, qualifications, and the ability to set and solve new production problems are increasing.

Economic progress is evaluated according to certain criteria.

The first highest is the level of development of productive forces, the second is labor productivity. The growth of labor productivity is a sign of economic development and acts as an economic law. Its essence lies in the fact that as a result of the evolution of the productive forces, labor costs for the creation of a social product are reduced. Since this reduces the time spent on the production of a unit of output, this process finds its expression in the law of economy of labor time. Ultimately, all the savings - raw materials, materials, from the introduction of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution into production, improving the organization of labor, etc., ultimately come down to saving working time. Growth in labor productivity and saving working time lead to an increase in surplus product. This is the third criterion of economic progress. It, acting as a surplus over the necessary product, is the basis of economic development. It is from it that the additional means of production and consumer goods necessary for the expansion of production come. Therefore, the greater the value of the surplus product, the greater and more diverse the range of equipment, household items, footwear, clothing, food products produced and, consequently, the more fully the needs of the population are satisfied.

The fourth criterion for economic progress is the all-round development of the individual. Economic progress is impossible without the creative energy of people - producers of material and spiritual goods. Man is the end and means of this progress.

Conclusion

An economic system is a complex ordered set of all economic relations and types of economic activity of a society, realized through the functioning of the productive forces and carried out in the forms of certain production and social relations and social institutions, the purpose of which is to satisfy the needs of society in material goods and services.

A significant impact on the functioning of the economic system has its external environment, everything that is outside the system.

An important property of an economic system is the presence of a structure.

The economy of any country is a huge, complex, very dynamic system. It transforms natural resources into material goods and services that satisfy social needs. However, for the functioning of the economic system, natural resources alone are not enough. It is also necessary to use the so-called economic resources: labor and means of production, which include transformed natural resources in the form of fuel, land, etc. If natural resources are external in relation to the economic system, then economic resources are internal components of the system itself.

Literature

1. The course of economic theory / Under. ed. M.I. Plotnitsky, A.N. Tura. - Minsk, 1998. - 432s.

2. Fundamentals of economic theory: Proc. allowance / Ed. V.L. Cluny. - Minsk: NKF "Ekoperspektiva", 1996. - 336 p.

3. Economic theory: textbook. allowance / Ed. L.N. Davydenko. - Minsk: Higher School, 2008. - 352 p.

4. Economic theory: Proc. allowance / Ed. I.V. Novikova. - Minsk: BSEU, 2006. - 543 p.

5. Economic theory (general foundations): Proc. allowance / Ed. M.I. Plotnitsky. Minsk: LLC "Modern School", 2006. - 392p.

Economics is a social science, along with other social sciences, it explores the connections and relationships between people and human behavior in society. It does not consider society as a whole, but only the sphere of its economic life.

A mixed economy is a market system based on private property and free enterprise, regulated by the state. Types of models of mixed economy priorities: social (Sweden), business (USA), national (Japan).

Comparative characteristics of modern economic systems: market, command-administrative, mixed economy. Economic rent is the difference between the payment for a resource and the minimum fee required for this resource to be offered.

Signs of allocation of types of economic systems. Essential features of different forms and types of ownership and features of economic reform. Characteristics of the modern market economy, command-administrative, traditional and mixed systems.

Relations of production. Production methods. Necessary and surplus product. Social production product and its structure.

Concept, essence, classification and types of economic systems. Characteristic features of the modern market economy. Economic culture, its features, functions and role in economic sphere society. List of meanings of the basic concepts of economic theory.

Property as an economic category, its essence and features, primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal-serf and capitalist types. Characteristics, features and development of private, state, municipal property.

Economic and legal content of property relations, its place in the life of society. Classification of property by objects, subjects, forms and rights. Comparative characteristics of types of economic systems. Concept, goals and stages of privatization.

The subject of economic theory. Methods economic research. Economic system.

Legal, documented fixation of the subject of ownership. Interest in the active use of the property, responsibility for its safety, efficient functioning, compensation for damage. Economic content of property.

The concept of economic systems and approaches to their classification. The main models of developed countries within the framework of economic systems. The main features and characteristics of the Swedish, American, German, Japanese, Chinese and Russian models of the transition economy.

Structure and essence of property. Forms of ownership. Types of property. Business and management as forms of property realization.

Limitless needs. Economic resources. Resource fees. Full employment and full production. The law of increasing time costs.

Production of material goods. Production is the starting point of economic activity. The concept of "productive forces". The structure of the productive forces. Supply and demand. Production and costs.

Property as the basis of industrial relations. Its place in the economic system. Organizational-economic and socio-economic relations between people in the process of organizing production and regarding the distribution of economic benefits.

Labor, means of production, their role in the production of material goods. economic laws, their functioning in various economic systems.

Productive forces and production relations. Neoclassical direction of economic thought. Market mechanism free competition. Even an ideal free market needs some form of government action.

The main stages in the development of economic systems, their varieties and features. Mixed economic institutions: American, Japanese and Swedish models. Strategic goals of economic reforms in Russia, conditions for the transition to a market economy.

The structure of the economic system of Russian society. Concept, structure and types of economic systems. Elements of productive forces

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