The bank's active operations include. Passive and active operations of a commercial bank. Classification of active operations of a commercial bank

TEST

by discipline"Money, credit, banks"

on the topic:"Active operations of commercial banks"

StudentChivileva A.V.

(Full Name)

facultyAccounting - statistical

well2 VO 3rd year of study

credit bookNo. 08UBD62572

Lecturer: PhD in Economics, Associate ProfessorAnokhina N.V.

(title, degree, surname, name, patronymic)

Chelyabinsk - 201 0.

INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………....3

1. The concept, meaning and structure of active operations……...……………………4

2. Classification of assets by risk, profitability, liquidity ...…………….. .8

3. Characteristics of loan and stock operations of commercial banks…..…10

CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………...19

LIST OF USED LITERATURE….………………………...21

Introduction

Commercial banks are a universal credit institution created to attract and place funds on a repayable and paid basis, as well as to carry out many other banking operations.

Commercial banks carry out active and passive operations. These operations are like two opposite sides of dialectical unity. Without passive operations active operations are impossible, and without active operations passive ones become meaningless. But without exception, all banking operations pursue one goal - to increase income and reduce costs.

This paper will consider the active operations of commercial banks, which are of paramount importance for the activities of banks, since the processes of formation of credit resources and their use are closely interconnected.

Active banking operations are operations through which banks allocate the resources at their disposal in order to generate the necessary income and ensure their liquidity.

The aim of the work is to study the essence and structure of active operations of commercial banks.

Based on the purpose of the work, the following tasks were set:

1) Reveal the connection between active operations of commercial banks and passive ones;

2) To reveal the importance of active operations for an individual bank and for the socio-economic development of the country;

3) To study the classification of assets of commercial banks;

4) Consider the characteristics of the lending operations of commercial banks in terms of their economic content and purpose, the category of the borrower, security, terms and methods of repayment, the form of issuing a loan, and also characterize the stock operations of commercial banks.

1. The concept, meaning and structure of active operations

Banks are the centers where business partnerships begin and end. The health of the economy depends to a decisive extent on the accurate and competent activity of banks. Without a developed network of commercial banks, the desire to create a real and efficient market mechanism remains only a wish.

Bank - a credit institution that has the exclusive right to carry out in the aggregate the following banking operations: Money individuals and legal entities, placement of these funds on their own behalf and at their own expense on the terms of repayment, payment, urgency, opening and maintaining bank accounts of individuals and legal entities.

Operations on the placement of banking resources are called active. Banking assets, like liabilities, consist of capital and current items. Capital items of assets - land, buildings owned by the bank; current - bank cash, accounting bills and other short-term liabilities, loans and securities.

The active operations of a commercial bank include: short-term and long-term lending to the production, social, investment and scientific activities of enterprises and organizations; provision of consumer loans to the population; purchase of securities; leasing; factoring; innovative financing and lending; equity participation of the bank's funds in the economic activities of enterprises; loans to other banks.

The role of active operations (operations for the placement of banking resources) for any commercial bank is very high. Active operations provide profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow to achieve two main objectives of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great national economic importance. It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the funds released in the course of economic activity to those participants economic turnover who need capital. Thus ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising branches of the economy, promoting the growth of industrial investment, the introduction of innovation, the implementation of restructuring, and the stable growth of industrial production, the expansion of housing construction. social role play bank loans to the population.

The activities of commercial banks are connected with the need to create conditions for sustainable growth of the country's economy. The fact is that without a bank loan it is impossible to carry out measures for the socio-economic development of production, since it takes a long time to accumulate the necessary funds from profit or from external sources. This, on the one hand, would delay the holding of a much-needed event, and on the other hand, the accumulated funds would lie idle until the required amount was reached, which is not economical. At the same time, another part of enterprises and organizations or citizens may temporarily available funds, which also lie without movement and which can be painlessly transferred to a loan to someone who needs them, on terms of return and with the collection of interest.

Active operations can be divided into four main types:

1) cash transactions;

2) loan operations;

3) settlement;

4) investment and stock;

5) warranty.

Loan operations - operations for the provision (issuance) of funds to the borrower on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment. Loan transactions related to the purchase (accounting) of promissory notes or the acceptance of promissory notes as collateral are accounting (accounting and loan) transactions.

Settlement transactions - operations for crediting and debiting funds from clients' accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties. Commercial banks make settlements according to the rules, forms and standards established by the Bank of Russia, in the absence of rules for conducting certain types of settlements - by agreement among themselves. When performing international settlements - in the manner prescribed by federal laws and rules adopted in international banking practice.

Commercial banks and the Bank of Russia are obliged to transfer the client's funds and credit funds to his account no later than the next business day after receiving the relevant payment document. In the event of untimely or incorrect crediting or debiting funds from a customer's account, the credit institution, the Bank of Russia shall pay interest on the amount of these funds at the official interest rate of the Bank of Russia.

Cash transactions - operations for the receipt and issuance of cash. More widely cash transactions can be defined as transactions related to the movement of cash, as well as the formation, placement and use of funds on various active bank accounts (including the Cashier account and correspondent accounts with other banks) and accounts of commercial bank customers.

Investment operations - operations by a bank investing its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint economic, financial and commercial activities, as well as those placed in the form of time deposits in other credit institutions. A feature of the investment operations of a commercial bank from credit operations is that the initiative for the first comes from the bank itself, and not its client. This is the investment activity of the bank itself.

Stock transactions - transactions with securities (in addition to investment).

Stock transactions include:

1) operations with bills of exchange (accounting and rediscounting operations, protest operations of bills, collection, domiciliation, acceptance, endorsement of bills, issuance of bills of exchange orders, storage of bills, their sale at an auction);

2) transactions with securities listed on stock exchanges.

Guarantee operations - operations for the issuance by the bank of a guarantee (guarantee) of payment of the client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions; also generate income for banks in the form of commissions.

Up to 80% of banking assets account for accounting and loan operations and investments in securities. For banks industrial developed countries the multidirectional movement of these two types of operations is characteristic. In a favorable economic environment, the specific gravity accounting and loan operations, which bring banks the bulk of the profits, and the share of investments in securities (under normal conditions, less profitable operations) is reduced. Economic crises, inflation, business disruption reduce opportunities bank lending economy and lead, respectively, to a decrease in the number of accounting and loan operations and an increase in investments in government securities.

2. Classification of assets by risk, profitability, liquidity

There is a certain relationship between the profitability, riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The more risky an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (yield serves as a payment for risk) and the lower the level of its liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to realize). The riskiest assets are usually both the most profitable and the least liquid.

SETELEM BANK<#"783569.files/image003.gif">Rice. 3 Currency structure of loans

The growth of overdue debt in the portfolio of loans to individuals has continued since the beginning of the year (4.4% at the beginning of 2013, 4.9% at the end of the year), having stabilized only in the 4th quarter. It is worth paying attention to the market leaders - for example, Home Credit, whose share of overdue debts increased by 3.5% - from 8.8% to 14.2%. The situation has slightly worsened even in Tinkoff Bank, which is actively selling overdue loans. Credit systems» - growth from 5.1% to 6.3%. The growth in the share of overdue debts is just caused by a slowdown in the growth of the loan portfolio, while problem loans continue to accumulate on the balance sheets of banks.

Rice. 4 Percentage of delinquent loans individuals

Foreign currency loans to individuals continue to be more problematic for banks than ruble loans - the share of overdue debt on them is 3 times higher. According to the market review released by the Bank of Russia mortgage lending, amounting to about 2.2 trillion. rub. almost a third of the total portfolio of loans to individuals) portfolio mortgage loans the situation is even more contrasting - more than 12% of foreign currency mortgage loans are overdue, while a little more than 1% of ruble loans.

Rice. 5 Percentage of overdue loans to individuals

Chapter 3. Active operations of banks with securities

Active operations of banks with securities represent their investment activities, in which banks act as investors, buying securities, or acquiring rights under a joint venture. economic activity. Such securities include: common and preferred shares, bonds, government debt obligations (bonds), bills of exchange, etc. Active transactions with promissory notes include the accounting of bills, the issuance of promissory notes, etc. Operations with stock securities are transactions with securities listed on the stock exchange.

The bank's active securities transactions include:

) investments in securities purchased for resale for the purpose of exchange profit (difference between the purchase and sale rates). These papers are kept in the bank's portfolio for a short time;

) the purchase of securities to receive income in the form of interest (on bonds, bills, certificates of deposit) and dividends (on shares), as well as participation in the management of the enterprise. Such securities are kept in the bank's portfolio for a long time (usually more than a year) and are called "bank investments";

) investments in securities purchased under repo type transactions. When buying such securities, the bank simultaneously assumes the obligation to sell them back after a certain period at a fixed rate. In other words, the bank makes a purchase of securities on the terms of their resale;

) accounting transactions are mainly transactions with bills of exchange. Accounting for a bill is the purchase of a bill by a bank (with the transfer to the bank of a bill by endorsement - a transfer record). When buying a bill from the holder of the bill, the bank acquires the right to receive money on the bill upon expiration of its term. For the fact that the bank advances the drawer, giving him money immediately, although the maturity of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the drawer who presented the bill for accounting, a discount or discount. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. At the expiration of the bill of exchange, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption. The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive the discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity.

Carrying out transactions with securities, the bank pursues the main goals:

(primary target). The yield on securities depends on their maturity. The shorter the term, the more stable the value of the security, therefore, it is preferable to invest in short-term securities than in long-term ones;

Investments in highly liquid securities allow the bank, if necessary, to easily sell them to make payments on a correspondent account.

Table 5 is presented to study the dynamics of active operations with securities.

Table 7 Dynamics of active operations with securities of Investcapitalbank

There are three main types of risk inherent in banking investments:

as a result of a change in the financial capacity of the issuer of the security to fulfill their payment obligations;

due to unforeseen circumstances in the securities market or in the economy as a whole;

the possibility of depreciation of securities as a result of market interest rates.

Decrease investment risk is achieved, first of all, by diversifying the portfolio of securities, i.e. the presence in the portfolio of various types of securities (by quality, maturity, territorial distribution, type of obligation, issuer). For strategic and tactical management investment activity special fund departments are created in the structure of the bank, which develop the main objectives of the investment policy, the composition and structure of investments, the mechanism for adjusting the composition of the portfolio, the procedure for delivery, storage, the insurance mechanism, calculate potential profits, etc.

Another important method of reducing the risk of transactions with securities is the fulfillment of the requirement of the central bank to form sufficient reserves for the depreciation of securities.

The bank's total investments are divided into direct and portfolio investments. Direct investment is a direct investment in production, the acquisition of real assets. Portfolio investments are made in the form of buying securities or providing funds in a long-term loan in a national or foreign currency. For strategic and tactical investment management, the bank develops a document on the main directions of the investment policy, including the following provisions: main goals, limits, responsibility of managers and performers, composition and structure of investments, requirements for diversifying the structure of the investment portfolio, insurance mechanism, calculation of potential profits and losses, list of bank services for investment services and others.

The active operations of the bank also include currency dealing. Holding currency transactions on the money markets- one of the most complex and extremely specific types banking which is carried out by highly qualified specialists - dealers.

Conclusion

Regional commercial bank from the Republic of Bashkortostan, InvestCapitalBank (JSC "Bank" Investment capital”) was organized in 1993 to serve the enterprises of the agro-industrial complex. The bank mainly operates in the Volga Federal District. The client base includes more than 10 thousand corporate clients.

Today, as a universal credit organization, the bank provides a wide range of banking products for corporate and private clients: deposit and settlement and cash services, all types of lending, transactions with bills and so on.

Today, Investcapitalbank has an extensive office network: 44 additional offices in Ufa and large cities of Bashkortostan, and 8 offices are located in Kazan, Perm and Tyumen. The authorized capital of the bank is 350.6 mln. Russian rubles. The bank's assets exceed 15.7 billion rubles. In terms of assets, Investcapitalbank belongs to the group of medium-sized financial and credit institutions. In the region, the bank ranks first in terms of capital and volume of operations.

The main sources of income for the bank are commercial (more than 36% of assets) and consumer loans(32.5%). The basis of the resource base is the deposits of individuals (about 59%) and the funds of enterprises and organizations (at least 26%). The bank shows very low activity in the market of interbank loans (volumes of issued and borrowed MCB in the asset-liability of the bank do not exceed 1%).

InvestCapitalBank provides customers with the opportunity to work with the payment systems "MasterCard Int." and VISA International, issuing and acquiring bank card data. The number of cards issued and in circulation exceeds 200,000, and the service network includes 84 ATMs.

Information agency "BankStars" according to the results of the express analysis financial reporting assigns a "satisfactory" reliability rating to the bank OJSC "InvestCapitalBank". According to IA "BankStars" given bank is characterized by a moderate risk of non-fulfillment of its obligations to creditors and depositors, however, the stability of the bank is sensitive to unfavorable developments in the situation. A necessary condition for increasing the reliability rating to moderately high is an increase in the level of capitalization of the bank. Active operations of commercial banks mean using their own and borrowed funds on their own behalf to obtain the appropriate income.

Based on the analysis of the structure of the bank's balance sheet in the reporting period, the volatility of funds in deposits and current accounts of the bank and a group of banks, similar in terms of assets, IA "BankStars" believes that OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" has a "high" ability to ensure the timely fulfillment of its obligations under return of funds to depositors and creditors in the event of a possible stress scenario.

According to the results of December 2011, IA "BankStars" states an increase in the level of capitalization of OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" to 11.41% due to the outstripping growth rate of equity capital relative to the growth rate of the bank's assets. According to IA "BankStars" OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" is characterized by "satisfactory" ability to compensate for possible losses in case of realization of a possible stress scenario at the expense of equity.

In December 2011, the bank's profit increased by RUB 44.54 million, amounting to reporting date RUB 247.24 million According to the results of the IV quarter of 2011, the return on equity of OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" amounted to 31.94%, the return on the bank's assets for the same period is 1.74%, which approximately corresponds to the average similar indicator of 30 largest Russian banks of 1.41%. The bank's profit structure is dominated by sustainable sources of income - interest and commission

income, which, according to IA "BankStars", is a factor that has a positive impact on the stability of future income.

The activities of banks are connected with the activities of people and are carried out in conditions of fluctuations in the level of supply and demand of banking services, more and more competition, etc. In this regard, it is not possible to determine the exact mathematical dependencies that describe banking activity as well as any other socio-economic activity, and hence the required control actions. Therefore, recommendations based on the analysis of the bank's activities can only be of a qualitative nature (for example, increase the share of cheaper borrowed funds, reduce the share of operations that bring insufficient profit, etc.).

Let us consider from this point of view the recommendations that can be made on the basis of an analysis of the bank's activities. With this division of active operations into groups according to the direction of funds, terms, groups of clients, and other criteria, it is necessary: ​​firstly, for the subsequent quantitative and qualitative analysis of their structure, associated with determining the relative share of each group in the total amount of bank assets, which, in in turn, it is necessary for the subsequent analysis of the profitability of banks. Secondly, when analyzing and comparing the structure of the bank's active operations, which can be determined from published balance sheets for two (or more) years, it can be recommended to start additional active operations. This is due to the fact that under real market environment expansion of the bank's active operations is, as a rule, expedient.

Thus, the goal set before writing the term paper is achieved with the help of the tasks set.

Workshop

Provides data on the types of assets of a commercial bank

Table 8

Required:

Determine the share of individual items of assets in the overall structure of assets.

To conclude.

In order to determine the share of individual items of assets in the total structure of assets, it is necessary to add the column share to the table given in task 1 and make calculations. For calculations, we need the following formula: (separate type of asset / total assets) * 100%

a) (Cash / total assets) * 100 \u003d (8784922 / 635460098) * 100 \u003d 1.37, etc.

Types of assets of a commercial bank (according to published reports)

Table 8

Analyzing table 8, it can be noted that the main share in the structure of assets of a commercial bank is occupied by net loan debt, the share of which is 61.25%. Then there are investments in investment securities available for sale, the share of which is 12.67%. It can also be noted that these investments are only 0.68% more than net investments in trading securities. It can also be noted that about 4-5% are funds of credit institutions in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and funds in credit institutions. Approximately from 1 to 1.8% of the total number of assets are cash, required reserves, fixed assets, intangible assets and inventories, and other assets. The smallest share of less than 1% is made up of net investments in investment securities held to maturity, claims for interest.

The data on the placement of the bank's funds are given:

Table 9

Types of assets of a commercial bank (according to published reports)

Required:

Analyze the asset structure of a commercial bank.

Analyze the dynamics of changes in the indicators of bank assets in comparison with task 1.

To conclude.

In order to analyze the asset structure of a commercial bank, we determine the share of individual balance sheet items in the overall asset structure. To do this, add to the original table 8 an additional column specific gravity and make calculations. For calculations, we need the following formula:

(separate type of asset/total assets)*100%

a) (Cash / total assets)*100=(6281207/404054373)*100=1.55

To analyze the dynamics of changes in the indicators of the bank's assets in comparison with task 1, it is necessary to add columns with the amounts of assets and the specific weight from task 1 and a column for changes over these periods in % to the original table 8.

Having done all the necessary calculations, we can draw the following conclusions:

changes have affected all types of assets, both positive and negative changes are observed, this indicates that there is not only an increase in assets, but also their reduction;

decrease in assets is observed in the following types: claims for interest by 57.66%, also funds in credit institutions by 15.91% and net investments in investment securities held to maturity by 24.52%;

the largest change was in net investments in investment securities available-for-sale, which increased by 227.31%;

growth of approximately 180% occurred in the following types: net investments in trading securities and other assets;

the table shows that the funds of credit institutions in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation increased by 70.62%;

for all other types, there is also an increase of approximately 20-40%.

List of literature sources used

Civil Code Russian Federation(part one) dated November 30, 1994 N 51-FZ (as amended on February 11, 2013) (with amendments and additions that entered into force on March 1, 2013)

Federal Law No. 86-FZ of July 10, 2002 (as amended on December 29, 2012) “On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)” (as amended and supplemented, effective from January 6, 2013)

Federal Law No. 395-1 of December 2, 1990 (as amended on December 29, 2012) “On Banks and Banking Activities” (as amended and supplemented, effective from January 27, 2013)

Federal Law No. 39-FZ of April 22, 1996 (as amended on December 29, 2012) “On the Securities Market”

Instruction of the Bank of Russia dated October 25, 2013 N 139-I "On the mandatory ratios of banks"

Banking: textbook / O. I. Lavrushin, I. D. Mamonova, N. I. and others - ed. Ster.-M.: KNORUS, 2011-768s.

BANKING Kosterina T.M.: Educational and practical guide. - M.: Ed. center EAOI, 2010. - 360 p.

Banks and non-banking credit organizations and their operations: textbook / Ed. E. F. Zhukova. - M. INFRA-M, 2011.-528s.

Structure of banking assets. Operations on the placement of banking resources are called active. Banking assets, like liabilities, consist of capital and current items. Capital items of assets - land, buildings owned by the bank; current - bank cash, accounting bills and other short-term liabilities, loans and securities.

Up to 80% of banking assets account for accounting and loan operations and investments in securities. The banks of industrialized countries are characterized by multidirectional movement of these two types of operations. In a favorable economic environment, the share of accounting and lending operations, which bring the bulk of the profits to banks, increases, while the share of investments in securities (under normal conditions, less profitable operations) is reduced. Economic crises, inflation, disruption of business activity reduce the possibility of bank lending to the economy and lead, respectively, to a decrease in the number of accounting and loan operations and an increase in investments in government securities.

Depending on the purpose of the acquisition, investments in securities can be divided into three types. First, investments in securities purchased under REPO transactions. When buying these securities, the bank has an obligation to re-sell the securities after a certain period at a pre-fixed price. Secondly, investments in securities purchased for resale in order to receive exchange rate profits. These are securities that are kept in the bank's portfolio for less than 6 months. The third type of bank investments in securities is bank investments, the purchase of securities that are acquired in order to receive income in the form of interest and dividends, and participate in the management of the enterprise. Such securities are usually kept in the bank's portfolio for 6 months or more.

In the 80s. there is a so-called securitization of assets, i.e. transformation bank claims to its borrowers in securities, usually bonds. The most common form is the issuance of bonds by the bank based on the obligations of borrowers under mortgage loan(mortgages, or mortgages). By selling bonds on the secondary market, banks refinance mortgage loans to their customers. Finally, securitization led to an expansion of off-balance sheet trading in securities.

Bank asset management. Income from accounting and loan operations, interest and dividends from investments in securities are the main sources of banking profit. However, when forming banking assets (asset management), no bank can proceed only from their profitability. The dual task of managing bank assets is to ensure sufficient profitability and at the same time reliability of the bank for its customers.

From the point of view of liquidity and profitability, four groups of banking assets can be distinguished.

The first group of banking assets - primary reserves. These are the most liquid assets that can be immediately used to pay off withdrawn deposits and satisfy loan applications. This includes: bank cash (cash balances in bank accounts in the form of banknotes and coins, sufficient for daily settlements, and funds in a correspondent account in central bank), checks and other payment documents in the process of collection, funds on correspondent accounts in other commercial banks. Such assets do not generate income, but serve as the main source of the bank's liquidity.

The second group of assets - secondary reserves. These are low income but highly liquid assets that can be turned into cash with minimal delay and negligible risk of loss. These include bills and other short-term securities, demand loans and short-term loans to prime borrowers. The main purpose of this group of assets is to serve as a source of replenishment of primary reserves.

The third one is the most main part banking assets - portfolio of bank loans. Bank loans are the most profitable, but also the most risky assets. This group of assets is the main source of the bank's profit.

The fourth group of banking assets is formed by a portfolio of securities, or a portfolio banking investments. The formation of an investment portfolio has two goals: to bring income to the bank and to be an addition to secondary reserves as long-term securities mature and turn into short-term ones.

In world practice, there are several approaches to the management of banking assets. With one or another approach to management, the bank's management allocates resources in different ways among different groups of assets.

The "general fund of funds" method is based on the idea of ​​distributing the total amount of bank resources (general fund of funds) between different types of assets, regardless of the source of resources. For the implementation of a specific active operation in accordance with this model, it does not matter from which source the funds came: from deposits on demand or from term deposits. This approach does not take into account the different liquidity requirements for different deposits. Schematically, the method of "general fund of funds" can be illustrated as follows (see Fig. 2.3).

With another method of asset management - "banks within a bank" - the formation of assets is carried out depending not only on total amount, but also on the structure of attracted resources. In accordance with this method, several "liquidity-profitability centers" are determined, which are used to place funds raised from various sources. Such centers are called “banks within a bank”. In the bank, as it were, there is a “bank of demand deposits”, a “bank of time deposits”, a “bank of fixed capital” (see Fig. 2.4).


Having established the belonging of funds to different "banks" in terms of their liquidity and profitability, the bank's management determines the order of their placement from each "bank". Placement of funds from each "bank" is carried out independently of other "banks".

Since demand deposits require the highest coverage of liquid assets, a significant part of the funds from the "bank of demand deposits" will be directed to primary reserves (for example, 1% more than the required reserve requirement to be held at the central bank). The remaining part of demand deposits will go mainly to secondary reserves, and only a small part - to loans, and short-term ones.

Otherwise, the funds of the “term deposit bank” will be distributed. A larger share of them will go to the formation of a secondary reserve, the provision of medium and long-term loans, and long-term securities. Regulation of bank investments is an independent area of ​​asset management.

Accounting and loan operations consist of accounting bills and loans. Accounting for a bill is a kind of purchase of a bill by a bank. When buying a bill from the bill holder, the bank buys the right to receive money on the bill at the end of the term. For the fact that the bank advances the holder of the bill, giving him money immediately, although the maturity of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the holder of the bill, who presented the bill for accounting, a discount or discount. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. At the expiration of the bill of exchange, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption (see Fig. 2.5). The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive the discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity.


Loan operations of banks can be classified according to the following criteria: by economic content and purpose, by category of borrowers, by security, by terms, methods and sources of repayment, by the form of issuing a loan.

Depending on the economic content and purpose loans are categorized as follows:
- loans for commercial purposes:

• for temporary needs to finance the current needs for working capital of industrial, commercial, agricultural enterprises;
• for capital investments, expansion and modernization of fixed capital in various industries;
• for stock speculation;

Consumer or personal loans for housing construction, purchase consumer goods long-term use, payment for education, treatment, etc.

• joint-stock companies and private enterprises (industrial, commercial, municipal, agricultural, brokerage);
• credit and financial institutions (and especially banks);
• population;
• government and local authorities.

Bank loans can be backed by nothing(blank) or secure. A secured loan requires some form of collateral. Loans can be secured by shares and bonds, bills of exchange and documents of title (warrant - a warehouse certificate confirming the presence of goods in a warehouse; a railway bill of lading; a bill of lading - a certificate of acceptance of cargo for sea transportation, etc.), accounts receivable, mortgages for a car or another kind movable property or real estate (land, buildings). The loan can also be secured by a surety - an agreement with a unilateral written obligation of the guarantor to the bank to pay, if necessary, the debt of the borrower. A kind of loan security is a guarantee of another bank or other organization (for example, the founder of the borrower) to pay for the guaranteed interest or loan in case of non-payment by the borrower.

By maturity, loans are divided into demand loans (on call), the repayment of which the bank may require at any time, and urgent loans. The latter are divided into short-term (from one day to one year), medium-term (from one year to 5-8 years) and long-term - for longer periods. The terms of medium and long-term loans in different countries different.

Bank loans can be repaid in two ways. In the first case, the entire principal debt on the loan (excluding interest) must be repaid on one end date by a lump-sum payment. The second method of repayment is in installments. The loan amount is written off in installments during the term of the loan agreement. Payments to repay the principal amount of the debt are made, as a rule, in equal installments periodically (monthly, quarterly, every six months or annually). The second method of repayment is usually applied to medium- and long-term loans. Interest on a loan can also be paid in a lump sum at the end of the loan term or in equal installments throughout the life of the loan.

Sources of repayment of loans depend on the type of loan. Short-term loans are usually repaid by liquidating those inventories or accounts receivable for which the borrower received a loan to finance. Medium-term and long-term loans are repaid from the profit received from the use of the loan.

According to the form of issuance, bank loans are divided into loans in the form of opening a credit line ( credit limit); issuance of a fixed loan for a certain period; in the form of a bill (promissory note).

An open line of credit, or an open credit limit, is a legally executed agreement (sometimes it is concluded verbally) between the bank and the borrower to provide the borrower with a loan within the agreed amount within a certain period on certain conditions. Typically, a credit line is opened for no more than a year, but it can be extended.

This is the most common form of short-term credit in most industrialized countries. The convenience for the borrower and the bank with this form of loan is that during the term of the credit line, the borrower can receive a loan at any time without additional negotiations with the bank.

The peculiarity of the credit line is that the agreement on its opening can be revised by both parties. The bank retains the right to refuse to issue a loan within the credit limit, if, for example, the borrower's situation has deteriorated. The borrower also has the right not to use the credit line in whole or in part. Another feature of a credit line is that its opening is often accompanied by a bank requirement for the borrower to keep a so-called compensatory balance in his current account in the amount of at least 20% of the amount of the credit line, either for the entire period of its validity, or the period of its actual use. As a result, the real level of interest charged on loans rises.

The technology of using a credit line is different. A loan under an open line of credit can be issued from a loan account opened by a bank, or a combined active-passive account is used, which records all bank operations with a client (loans provided by the bank to the client are recorded on the debit of the account, and the amounts received by the bank are recorded on the credit). from the client in the form of proceeds from the sale of products, deposits, etc.).

A classic example of an active-passive account is a checking account. The loan provided on this account is called a contract loan. After the conclusion of the agreement on opening a current account, the current account is closed and all operations are carried out on the current account. Interest on a contract loan is calculated periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. The current credit is widely used in Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy.

In the UK, France and Canada, the loan is provided in the form of an overdraft facility. This is perhaps the easiest method of lending. With an overdraft, the bank provides a loan by issuing money to the client (paying his bills) from his current account in excess of the balance available on the account within the credit limit. Limit amount, i.e. the maximum overdraft amount is set when opening a current account by agreement between the bank and the client. With an overdraft, all amounts credited to the client's current account are directed to repay the debt, so the amount of the loan changes as funds become available. Unlike a current account, interest on an overdraft is calculated daily.

Loans in a fixed amount for a certain period are issued, as a rule, to meet the target need for funds on the basis of loan agreement, which, unlike an agreement to open a credit line, is a firm obligation of the bank to issue a loan on the terms of the agreement. The peculiarity of such a loan is that it is repaid within a strictly established period when repaid in a lump sum or in accordance with a clear repayment schedule provided for in the loan agreement with regular periodic installments. Loans in the form of term loans can be both short-term and medium- and long-term. Term loans are issued from a loan account opened by a bank either by crediting the current or current account of the borrower to the loan, or by paying claims against the borrower or issuing in cash.

When a loan is issued in the form of a promissory note (the so-called promissory note), the bank, on the basis of a loan agreement, issues a promissory note to the borrower and issues it to the borrower. The nominal value of the bill is equal to the amount of the loan, the date of repayment of the loan is set on the eve of the maturity of the bill. The borrower uses the promissory note received from the bank for settlements with his supplier, and in due time pays the bank the amount of the promissory note and interest on the loan in the form bank commission. When the bill of exchange matures, the bank pays its amount to the last holder of the bill.

The conditions for issuing loans are differentiated depending on the amount of the borrower's capital, his ties with the bank. More large enterprises having long-term close ties with banks, loans are provided for longer periods, without collateral, from more low interest. Usually, banks periodically set and publish a minimum primary, or base, rate - the rate on unsecured short-term loans to first-class borrowers. Depending on the category of borrowers, rates are set for them several points higher than the base one.

High inflation rates in the mid-70s. led to the spread of such a technique of bank lending, which reduces credit risk. These are, first of all, the so-called rollover (from the English rollover - renewal), or renewable, loans. They are a type of medium- and long-term loans provided at “floating” interest rates, which are reviewed after terms stipulated in the loan agreement (usually three to six months) at current market rates at short-term loans. Upon agreement between the parties to the loan agreement of the total term of the loan, the period of its use is divided into time periods (sub-periods), for each of which the interest rate is set again. Although rollover loans are established for medium terms, they are issued on short time, after which the credit is renewed, and so on until the general term loan. Periodic Reviews interest rate reduce the risk of bank losses from higher rates on short-term deposits, which are the main source of resources for medium-term loans.

Decrease credit risk also provide syndicated or consortium loans. This is the name of loans provided by two or more banks to one borrower. By providing such a loan, banks pool their funds for a period, forming a syndicate. In accordance with the agreement, each bank undertakes to provide funds in a certain amount for total loan. Syndicated loans may also be provided not by a syndicate, but by a separate bank, which, after concluding an agreement with the borrower, attracts other banks, issuing them so-called participation certificates. The collective organization of loans allows you to distribute the risk of loan default among banks, reducing the risk of each bank, as well as increase the volume of credit.

The role of active operations for "any" commercial bank is very high. Active operations provide profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow to achieve two main objectives of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great national economic importance; It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the funds released in the course of economic activity to those participants in the economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, facilitating the growth of industrial investment, the introduction of innovations, the implementation of restructuring and the stable growth of industrial production. production, expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play an important social role. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The more risky an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to realize). The riskiest assets are usually both the most profitable and the least liquid.

Let's give a classification of assets according to such qualities as profitability, liquidity, riskiness.

According to the degree of profitability, all assets are divided into two groups:

* income-generating (so-called working), for example, bank loans, a significant part of investments in securities;

* not generating income (the so-called non-working); for example, these include: cash on hand; balances on correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank; investments in fixed assets of the bank: buildings, equipment.

In terms of liquidity, there are three groups of assets.

1. Highly liquid assets. They can be immediately used to pay off withdrawn deposits or satisfy loan applications, as they are in cash or can be easily and quickly transferred to it. This includes cash on hand, correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank, and correspondent accounts with other commercial banks.

2. Liquid assets are assets with an average degree of liquidity. They can be converted into cash with little delay and little risk of loss. These include demand loans and short-term loans, marketable bills and other short-term securities, primarily government.

3. Non-liquid (and even illiquid, hopeless) assets are those assets, the probability of which turning into cash is very small or even zero. These are long-term loans of the bank, its investments in long-term securities, hard-to-sell buildings, structures, long-term debts.

Up to 80% of banking assets account for lending operations and investments in securities. Income from these operations are the main sources of bank profits.

To credit transactions includes lending operations and operations on placement of deposits in other banks (active deposit operations). Loan operations are the provision of funds by the bank on the basis of a loan agreement on the terms of repayment, payment, and urgency. These operations bring banks, as a rule, the bulk of interest income.

Loan operations of banks can be classified according to the following criteria: by economic content and purpose, by category of borrowers, by security, by terms and methods of repayment, by the form of issuing a loan.

* joint-stock companies and private enterprises (industrial, commercial, municipal, agricultural, brokerage);

* credit and financial institutions (primarily banks);

* population;

* government and local authorities. Bank loans may be unsecured (blank) or secured. The loan can be secured by a pledge of shares, bonds, bills of exchange and documents of title (a warrant - a warehouse certificate confirming the presence of goods in a warehouse; a railway bill of lading; a bill of lading - a certificate of acceptance of cargo for sea transportation, etc.), accounts receivable, mortgages for a car or other type of movable property or real estate. A loan secured by real estate is called a mortgage. A loan can also be secured by a surety or guarantee - an agreement with a unilateral written obligation of the guarantor or guarantor to the bank to repay the loan in case of non-payment by the borrower or insurance of the risk of non-repayment of the loan by an insurance company.

By maturity, loans are divided into demand loans (on-call), the repayment of which the bank may require at any time, and urgent. The latter are divided into short-term (from one day to one year), medium-term (from one to three to five years) and long-term - for longer periods. The terms of medium- and long-term loans vary from country to country.

Bank loans can be repaid in two ways. In the first case, the entire principal debt on the loan (excluding interest) must be repaid on one end date by a lump-sum payment. The second method of repayment is in installments. The loan amount is written off in installments during the term of the loan agreement. Payments to repay the principal amount of the debt are made, as a rule, in equal installments periodically (monthly, quarterly, every six months or annually). The second method of repayment is usually applied to medium- and long-term loans. Interest on a loan can also be paid in a lump sum at the end of the loan term or in equal installments throughout the life of the loan.

A classic example of an active-passive account is a checking account. The loan provided on this account is called a contract loan. After the conclusion of the agreement on opening a current account, the current account is closed, and all operations are carried out on the current account. Interest on a contract loan is calculated periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. The current credit is widely used in Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy.

The bank's active operations with securities include four main types.

1. Investments in securities purchased for resale in order to obtain exchange rate profit (the difference between the purchase and sale rates). These securities are kept in the bank's portfolio for a short time.

2. Purchase of securities in order to receive income in the form of interest (on bonds, promissory notes, certificates of deposit) and dividends (on shares), as well as participation in the management of the enterprise. Such securities are kept in the bank's portfolio for a long time (usually more than a year) and are called bank investments.

3. Investments in securities purchased under repo type transactions. When buying such securities, the bank simultaneously assumes the obligation to sell them back after a certain period at a fixed rate. In other words, the bank makes a purchase of securities on the terms of their resale.

4. Accounting operations. These are mainly operations with bills of exchange. Accounting for a bill is the purchase of a bill by a bank (with the transfer of a bill to the bank by endorsement). When buying a bill from the holder of the bill, the bank gets the right to receive money on the bill at the end of its term. For the fact that the bank advances the drawer, giving him money immediately, although the maturity date of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the drawer who presented the bill for accounting, a discount or discount. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. At the expiration of the bill of exchange, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption (see Fig. 9.3). The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive the discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity.

There is a close relationship between passive and active operations of a commercial bank. First of all, the size and structure of active operations that provide revenues are largely determined by the resources available to banks. In this sense, passive operations that form the bank's resource base are primary in relation to active ones. By providing loans, buying securities, banks are forced to constantly monitor the state of liabilities, monitor the timing of payments on obligations to depositors. If there are not enough resources, the bank has to refuse advantageous offers, sell high-yield securities. At the same time, a significant part of bank deposits arises on the basis of active operations in the provision of loans in non-cash form. The relationship between passive and active operations is also manifested in the fact that bank profit depends on the bank margin, i.e. the difference between the price of bank resources and the profitability of active operations.

For successful operation, the bank must ensure the coordination of passive and active operations: on the one hand, it must not allow a significant discrepancy between the terms of liabilities and assets, for example, issuing long-term loans at the expense of short-term deposits; and on the other hand, do not immobilize on long term short term resources in an amount significantly exceeding the stable balance of funds in bank accounts, sufficient for regular payments.

There is also a relationship between certain types of liabilities and assets. Yes, opening bank account large client is accompanied by the emergence of close regular ties between the client and the bank. In order not to lose a client, the bank provides him with significant loans, invests in his securities, provides him with various services for expenses, and performs commission transactions.

- to raise funds and active - to place funds.

Asset management is understood as the ways and procedure for placing own and borrowed funds in order to generate income and ensure the liquidity of a commercial bank. In relation to commercial banks, this is the distribution of cash, loans, investments
into securities and other assets. When placing funds, special attention is paid to lending operations and investments in securities.

Accommodation bank funds in different types of assets depends on existing laws and regulations, the need to maintain high level liquidity and the need to receive a sufficiently high income. The choice of asset management method depends on the specific conditions in which the bank operates, the goals that it sets for itself, and, of course, the competence of the bank's management. But when using any asset management method, entering the credit markets, buying and selling securities, providing their customers with a variety of services for cash settlements, issuing guarantees, etc., banks must constantly monitor the state of their liabilities, the availability of free cash, terms of demand for deposits, the cost of attracted capital and savings.

Active operations are secondary to passive ones. Their sizes and terms directly depend on the same parameters as passive operations. A commercial bank can place only those resources that it attracted as a result of passive operations, and since the bulk of passive operations are not its own, but borrowed funds, the bank must form its active operations in such a way that the timing of the return of money to the bank corresponds to the timing of their return clients. In this case, the bank will be solvent, financially stable, which, undoubtedly, will additionally attract customers to it.