Introduction
Banks are the centers where business partnerships begin and end. The health of the economy depends to a decisive extent on the accurate and competent activity of banks. Without a developed network of commercial banks, the desire to create a real and efficient market mechanism remains only a good wish.
Commercial banks are a universal credit institution created to attract and place Money on the terms of repayment and payment, as well as for the implementation of many other banking operations.
Commercial banks carry out active and passive operations. These operations are like two opposite sides of dialectical unity. Without passive operations, active operations are impossible, and without active operations, passive ones become meaningless. But without exception, all banking operations pursue one goal - to increase income and reduce costs.
As for this course work, it will just examine the operations of commercial banks, namely active ones, because they have the activities of commercial banks one of the paramount values, since the processes of formation of credit resources and their use are closely interconnected.
Active banking operations are operations through which banks allocate the resources at their disposal in order to generate the necessary income and ensure their liquidity.
The economic significance and relevance of this issue is the issue of conducting active operations and determined the writing of this course work, the purpose of which is to theoretically explore the essence and significance of active operations of commercial banks, as well as to analyze the practice of carrying out these operations.
Based on the purpose of the work, the following tasks were set:
— to determine the essence of active operations of commercial banks;
- to find out the structure of assets of active operations of banks and briefly characterize the main ones;
— to study the main aspects of the analysis of active operations of commercial banks in Russia;
- identify the main problems of improving active operations.
When writing this term paper, scientific works and monographs of Russian economists and foreign experts in the field of banking, some textbooks and methodological developments, materials from periodicals, and statistical information were used.
1. Active operations, their role and place in banking
1.1 The economic essence of active operations
According to the classification of active operations, as well as the structure of assets, there are different points of view.
According to Bukato V.I., Lvov Yu.I. The main active operations are:
- credit operations, as a result of which the bank's loan portfolio is formed;
— investment operations that form the basis for the formation of an investment portfolio;
- cash and settlement operations, which are one of the main types of services provided by the bank to its customers;
— other active operations related to the creation of an appropriate infrastructure that ensures the successful completion of all banking operations.
Lavrushin believes that the most common active operations of banks are:
- lending operations, as a rule, bring banks the bulk of their income. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations lies in the fact that through them banks turn temporarily inactive cash funds into the existing ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption;
- investment operations, in the process of their completion, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights for joint economic activities;
— deposit operations, assignment of active deposit operations banks is to create current and long-term reserves of means of payment on accounts with the Central Bank (correspondent account and reserve account) and other commercial banks;
- other active operations, various in form, bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, etc.
Antonov P.G., Pessel M. distinguishes the same operations as Bukato V.I. and Lvov Yu.I., that is: cash, credit, investment and other operations.
As for me, I adhere to the opinion of Bukato V.I., Lvov Yu.I., Polyakov V.P. and Moskovkina L.A., which include in active operations: cash, credit, investment and other operations, since these operations are the most common types of active operations of banks.
1.2 Types and forms of active operations of commercial banks
1.2.1 Lending transactions
1.2.1.1 Types and forms of loans
The source of the loan is temporarily free resources in the form of money released in the course of the activities of credit institutions. From all other forms of providing funds (subsidies, subventions, grants, etc.), credit as an economic category is distinguished by three fundamental principles - urgency, repayment and payment.
At the same time, URGENCY means predetermined terms for the return of borrowed funds to the lender; under RETURN - obligatory payment to the creditor of the amount of the main debt on the agreed terms. PAID means that in this economic transaction, money is a specific product and, based on the law of value, its price is expressed as a percentage.
In addition to these mandatory principles, loans can be classified according to the following additional main types and forms:
- sources of attraction - external and internal loans;
- purpose - related, unrelated and intermediate;
- purpose of use - targeted and non-targeted;
- terms - short-, medium-, long-term and investment;
- security - secured and blank;
- form of organization - syndicated, consortium, bilateral and club;
— borrowing currency — in the currency of the creditor country, in the currency of the borrower country, in the currency of a third country, in international accounts monetary units, multicurrency;
- type of interest rate - floating, fixed and mixed;
- form of provision - by real transfer of funds, refinancing and rescheduling of debt;
- form of repayment - in one amount, in equal shares at regular intervals, in disproportionate shares at mutually agreed terms;
- number of uses - one-time and renewable;
- granting technique - in one amount, an open credit line, a contract loan, an overdraft loan, a stand-by, etc.;
- type of creditor - official, unofficial, mixed and loans from international organizations;
— legal subordination — according to the legislation of the creditor, according to the legislation of the borrower, according to the legislation of a third country.
Classification of loans.
Let us now consider the classification of loans by form in more detail.
As already noted, according to the sources of attraction, all loans are divided into external and internal. EXTERNAL LOANS are understood as loans attracted from non-resident financial institutions. Typically, these loans are related to servicing the foreign economic relations of the clientele of a credit institution, the need to reinvest loans provided by the relevant bank to other economic structures in foreign currency (in order to prevent the creation of an open foreign exchange position). DOMESTIC LOANS usually serve to maintain the liquidity and profitability of a credit institution in the national currency, as well as financial support for its business activity.
Any credit institution carries out its activities in accordance with the plan developed by the bank's management. In this regard, the funds attracted by the bank have a specific PURPOSE.
RELATED LOANS are provided by banks in order to support the financial and economic activities of their clients. At the same time, related loans can be of several types (for cash payments, for advance payments, post-financing, an interbank loan for a specific commercial transaction, credit lines).
A CASH LOAN is used if the client of the creditor bank, which is the supplier of the goods, is interested in placing an order, but is unable to obtain a commercial loan. In this case, the creditor bank pays the client the full amount of the contract, without any deductions, with simultaneous filing of claims against the bank serving the buyer. The benefit of the exporting company lies in the one-time receipt of the full amount of the payment, which is impossible when applying for a bill of exchange loan or a loan on an open account. At the same time, the supplier's bank, as the latter's account holder, leaves its balance sheet unchanged, increasing the liability item of funds on current customer accounts. The bank of the buyer company, having obligations to the creditor bank in its balance sheet, reflects claims against its client on the active counter-account, while all funds received on the buyer's account will be collateral for the asset. The buyer, for his part, receives the goods with a real deferred payment on financial terms more attractive than under a company or client loan.
LOAN FOR ADVANCE PAYMENTS is attracted in the event that the buyer concludes contracts for significant amounts, and part of the contract is subject to prefinancing. An example of such loans may be loans made by the former USSR to finance the purchase of large diameter pipes from Japan. Since the transaction amounts reached several billion dollars, in order to refinance the advance payments in the amount of 15% of total amount transactions the USSR attracted loans from Japanese banks serving the relevant supplier firms. Since the attraction of such funds is not related to the needs of the credit institution itself, the borrowing bank draws up a counterclaim for the direct consumer of the goods.
POST-FINANCING is a loan for the refinancing of previously made payments and is formalized by a loan agreement of a special form. One of the most distinctive features of this agreement is the rule on advance payment by the borrowing bank on invoices issued by the buyer with detailed details (full name of the goods, the buyer's company, the seller's company, the date of shipment of the goods, terms of delivery and insurance, etc.). Upon receipt of the relevant documentation, the creditor bank checks the documents received from the borrowing bank and compares them with the information received from the supplier. In the absence of any objection from the creditor bank, the creditor bank provides the necessary congruent refinancing to the borrowing bank. In terms of attractiveness, post-financing is generally comparable to loans for advance payments.
INTERBANK LOAN UNDER A SPECIFIC COMMERCIAL TRANSACTION is the most common type of bank loan. At the same time, reference is made in the interbank agreement to specific intercompany contracts. This form of credit implies payment on the terms of collection or under a letter of credit with the simultaneous presentation of a credit claim on the borrowing bank.
A CREDIT LINE is opened by a creditor bank in favor of a borrowing bank within the limit agreed between the parties. Within the specified limit, the borrowing bank may raise funds from the creditor bank to finance the purchase of goods specified in a special agreement. This type of loans is one of the most common in interbank practice.
UNLINKED LOANS are attracted by the borrower with the right to independently misuse the funds received.
INTERIM LOANS are extremely rarely used in the banking business itself, as they are intended to serve such specific activities as leasing, engineering, etc. Since any transaction, including the provision of services, the leasing of equipment, etc., has a mandatory monetary value, it is actually accompanied by the provision of a bank loan, which mediates the activities of the seller until the resources are received. At first glance, intermediate forms of loans are not as attractive to the borrowing bank as a tied loan. This is explained by the fact that the borrowing bank does not receive additional collateral in the form of a product that has become the property of the buyer or received from the sale of this product to the account of the company receiving the proceeds. However, the benefit of the borrowing bank is to reduce the risk of non-payment on the part of the client while increasing the efficiency of its activities.
Often the purpose of loans is confused with their PURPOSE. Purpose-built loans include tied and intermediate loans, as well as a number of financial loans raised without specifying the object of the loan.
As noted above, one of the principles of lending is the urgency of operations. BY TERMS, loans are conditionally divided into short-, medium-, long-term and investment.
SHORT-TERM INTER bank loans are deposits with a maturity of up to one year. At the same time, transactions for a period of up to 90 days inclusive are allocated to a separate group. These are one-day loans (“overnight” with a period of use from today to tomorrow; “tommorow-next” loans - from tomorrow to the day after tomorrow; “spot-next” - from the day after tomorrow for one day), weekly (“spot-week” - from the day after tomorrow per week), as well as two- and three-week, one-, two- and three-month loans.
According to the adopted classification, MEDIUM-TERM loans include loans from one year to ten years, as well as deposits for a period of more than 12 months.
LONG-TERM loans include loans with a total maturity of more than ten years.
Rare varieties of long-term loans include the so-called INVESTMENT INTERBANK LOANS. As a rule, they have the nature of a subordinated or participatory loan. Sometimes this category includes unrelated loans with maturities over 10 years.
According to the regulations of a number of countries, a SUBORDINATED LOAN means funds provided to a borrower to increase its working capital for a period of more than 10 years. Used to calculate the capital base, as well as to create provisions for doubtful and bad debts, subordinated loans are included by the borrower in the category of own funds. Upon liquidation of a credit institution that has subordinated loans in its liabilities, the corresponding funds can be used to satisfy creditors' claims, if the authorized, excess, and other components of equity capital are not enough to pay off all of its obligations. In any other case, if the intended nature of the funds provided was not specified in the loan agreement, the expenditure of a subordinated loan requires the written consent of the lender.
A PARTICIPATING LOAN has all the above characteristics of a subordinated loan, but has a number of distinctive features . In fact, it is a hidden increase in the bank's own capital, which explains in the text of the relevant agreement the norm on the possible issue in favor of the creditor of an additional number of shares of the borrower. A participatory loan can be seen as a form of interbank investment and the only loan transaction that may not have a maturity.
The broad possibilities of a subordinated loan and a participatory loan predetermined a very strict regulation of the conditions for such attraction, and sometimes a direct ban on such operations (Germany). In those states whose legislation permits the attraction of these loans (England, France, etc.), their use and repayment is carried out only with the written consent of the currency authorities of the country.
Sometimes, in order to maintain bilateral relations when it is impossible to carry out a bilateral transaction (for example, upon reaching the lending limit of one borrower), the parties can use the so-called “MIRROR DEAL”. This operation is a loan through a third bank, in which the real lender refinances the official one on terms that fully comply with the “mirror” agreement between the official lender and the real borrower. At the same time, the target nature of the operation is manifested in the accounting of the official creditor, since the counter-item of the placement of funds corresponds to a specific attraction item.
The benefit of the official creditor is the difference between the cost of the attracted and the cost of the placed loan in the amount of 1/16 to 1/8% per annum. In all other respects, the refinancing of an official creditor is congruent. An official lender's refinancing agreement typically includes the following provision: "The borrower's obligations to the lender are limited to amounts received from (name of bank) under an agreement dated (date of agreement)". Since such loans are provided on a gentleman's basis, at the first request of the official creditor, the real creditor and the real borrower will have to “open” their relationship with the payment of an assignment (lost profit) to the official creditor. “Mirror” loans are found, as a rule, within the same financial group and are carried out with the aim of transferring capital to the main office, concealing the regional policy of the corresponding financial group. At the same time, "mirror" loans within the country are subject to the laws of this country, and international "mirror" loans - to the legislation of the original creditor or English law.
One of the main indicators of the level of risk of credit investments is the SECURITY of the granted loans. In this regard, loans are divided into secured and unsecured.
UNSECURED means only one type of credit transactions - an interbank agreement on attracting financial resources for a specific period with the obligation to pay the principal and interest on the agreed terms without providing any additional documents or collateral. An unsecured loan is a loan in the name.
Among SECURED loans, it is customary to single out secured and blank loans. BLANK loans include loans with a bank bill of exchange, which serves as an obligation of the borrower to pay a specific amount on a specific date upon presentation of the original bill. MATERIAL SECURITY for loans can be commercial (branded) bills, other securities, titles of title and other equivalent commercial documentation, land, real estate, products in warehouses, etc. In this case, the security is in the nature of a pledge, which has several forms:
- “hidden” pledge, when the security for the loan is in the hands of the consumer who processes the goods for the purpose of its subsequent sale and repayment of the previously attracted loan. In this case, funds credited to the client's account with the lending bank act as collateral;
— “soft” collateral, in which the borrower’s balance sheet constantly the balance of goods of a specific assortment is taken into account for the full amount of the loan and interest at market value with approximately 10% excess of the amount of loan obligations;
- "hard" collateral, which is reflected on the bank's balance sheet in the form of a counterpart to liabilities with an exact indication of the value of the pledged collateral. In interbank relations, a “hard” pledge in the amount of a certain share of the provided resources can be various financial instruments - from insurance deposits to precious metals.
Serious differences between loans are manifested in their attraction and servicing, depending on the FORM of ATTRACTION of funds, which can be carried out in the form of bilateral, syndicated, and consortial loans. For example, a loan attracted on the terms of "BANK-BANK" does not contain sections and articles about the loan agent and the relationship between the borrower and the lender arising in connection with this. Some agreements do not even include a provision on possible subsequent loan syndication (assignment of claims to several credit institutions). Such loans are usually insignificant in amount, which is due to the rigidity of the norms of the currency authorities of all states on the limits of lending to individual borrowers. The average term for them rarely exceeds five years, and the margin on the loan is higher than the weighted average margin on syndicated loans by about 1/4%. All credit settlements are carried out on a bilateral basis.
A SYNDICATED loan in the strict sense of the word (often this name means all non-bilateral loans) is a loan provided by a syndicate of banks headed by one agent bank, which simultaneously performs the functions of a managing bank and a paying agent. A syndicated loan is often provided for significant amounts with the involvement of a large number of participants. The need to coordinate the actions of all creditors and the legal and other costs inevitably associated with this determine the compensation of the costs of the agent bank. When raising funds, the agent is paid a commission for the organization and management of the loan, as well as a commission for commitment. Subsequently, the borrower transfers to the agent, on pre-agreed dates, the annual agency commission to compensate for his operating expenses for maintaining the loan.
A CONSORTIAL LOAN differs from a syndicated one by the presence of two or more arrangers and co-managers for the loan. The consortium agreement separately regulates the rights and obligations of the paying agent, co-managers, other creditors, on the one hand, and the borrower, on the other. Consortial loans are usually concluded for amounts of USD 250 million or more. It should be noted that the most widespread banking consortiums were in Germany and Japan. English, American and Swiss banks organize mainly syndicates.
In rare cases, banks organize so-called clubs to provide loans. CLUB loans have all the hallmarks of syndicated loans. However, unlike the latter, this operation cannot be divided among creditors.
Taking into account that credit mediates not only national but also international economic and financial-credit relations, banks can attract and provide loans denominated in various currencies. At the same time, it should be noted that short-term loans(deposits) can be attracted in any currency from a major credit institution in any country. Medium-term and related funds are usually attracted in the currency of the creditor country.
Of great importance is the technique of attracting loans, which can be attracted in one amount, several borrowings within the framework of an open credit line with a predetermined limit. There are also loans "STAND-BY", current account, overdraft, etc.
A LOAN ATTRACTED IN A SINGLE AMOUNT is usually an unrelated interbank loan or a loan against the refinancing of individual trading contracts, associated with a lump sum payment to the supplier of the amount under the contract. In the second case, the size of the actual transfer of funds by the creditor to the supplier does not matter. (The creditor can pay the supplier from 70 to 90% of the amount of the delivered goods under the factoring operation; under the a-forfe operation, the supplier will receive the amount due to him from the buyer minus the discount rate increased by about two percent. At the same time, the costs of accepting credit operations the seller will be minimal - no more than a discount calculated on the basis of the discount rate. At the same time, the lender will write down the nominal amount of the obligation for the borrower.)
As part of the OPEN CREDIT LINE, within the previously agreed limit, funds are attracted for refinancing payments for purchases of goods by the bank's customers. The presence of an open credit line creates for the borrower the opportunity to attract funds at any time for lending transactions that meet the standards set forth in the agreement.
The STAND-BY agreement gives the borrower the right to apply to the lender for a loan up to the agreed limit on terms and conditions to be agreed at a later date. At the same time, the commission for the obligation paid by the borrower to the lender is usually 1/16 - 1/8% lower than the similar commission for an open credit line and does not exceed 1/4%. Quite often, STAND-BY loans are used in the relationship between the main office and affiliated financial institutions and serve as an insurance credit line, as well as a hidden source of capital transfer.
A CONTRACTING loan is provided by the bank only to its customers. It differs from a conventional loan by the method of accounting. If, when providing a regular loan, the bank opens a simple or special loan account in favor of the client, then the use of the checking loan is carried out on the current account of the client, followed by the repayment of the principal debt and interest payments of the entire or agreed share of the proceeds received on the account. Attracting a contract loan is usually carried out by small legal entities - bank customers who trust the credit institution to keep records of all their transactions. The nature and nature of a contractual loan explains its limited application in banking practice.
1.2.1.2 Features credit operations in various countries
In the practice of Western banks, a distinction is made between business (commercial) loans and personal loans. These categories correspond to various types of loan agreements that determine the conditions for granting a loan, its repayment, etc. Here we look at the most common methods bank lending business firms and individual clients in several Western countries.
USA. Loans to commercial enterprises can be divided into two groups:
— Loans to finance working capital;
— Loans to finance fixed capital.
The first group is related to the lack of funds from enterprises to purchase elements of working capital necessary for day-to-day operations. These are mainly short-term loans up to one year. These include:
— credit lines (including seasonal and renewable);
- loans for emergency needs;
permanent loans to replenish working capital.
The second group is represented by medium- and long-term loans for the purchase of real estate, land, equipment, rental operations, establishing control over companies, etc. These include:
- term loans;
- mortgage loans;
- construction loans;
- financial leasing.
Consider some of the types of loans that were not described above.
Seasonal credit line(seasonal line of credit) is provided by the bank in case of a shortage of working capital that periodically arises in the company, associated with the seasonal cyclicality of production or the need to create stocks of goods in the warehouse. Such a line could be opened, for example, by a toy shop owner to stock up on Christmas tree decorations before the Christmas sale, or a farmer who needs to purchase large amounts of seeds, fertilizers, etc. before starting sowing. Loans of this kind are repaid at the end of the operating cycle against proceeds from the sale of assets. Repayment of debt and interest is made in a lump sum payment. Typically, the bank requires collateral in the form of the borrower's property.
Revolving credit line(revolving line of credit) is provided by the bank if the borrower experiences a long-term shortage of working capital to maintain the required production volume. The term of such a loan usually does not exceed one year. Having repaid part of the loan, the borrower can receive a new loan within the established limit and the term of the agreement. Revolving line debt fluctuates so that there is always an outstanding balance in the credit account. The risk for the bank is the non-repayment of the loan due to reduced sales or non-payment of invoices on time by the borrower's counterparties. Therefore, the bank requires a pledge of fixed assets or additional guarantees.
emergency loans(special commitment loans) are issued by the bank to finance a one-time extraordinary increase in the client's need for working capital associated with the conclusion of a profitable deal, the receipt of a large order and other emergency circumstances. The loan is issued for a strictly limited period corresponding to the period of manufacture, delivery of goods and payment by the customer. The loan is repaid in a lump sum. The risk for the bank is associated in this case with the possibility of failure to complete the order on time or the customer's refusal. Therefore, the bank requires additional security or guarantees.
Permanent loans to replenish working capital(permanent working capital loans). Loans of this kind are issued for several years and are intended to cover the long-term deficit of the borrower's financial resources. Loan repayment is made in installments, monthly, quarterly or semi-annual payments, and the repayment scale is developed and approved at the time of conclusion of the loan agreement. Unlike the above types of loans, repayment is made from profits, and not through the sale of assets. These operations are associated with a high risk, so the bank requires collateral in the form of property or guarantees from third parties.
Mortgage loans(mortgage loans) are used to finance the purchase or construction of factories, industrial buildings, land acquisition. They are designed for a long period (15 years or more). Repayment (mortgage amortization) is made in monthly installments according to a predetermined scale. Over time, the part of the principal payment that goes to pay interest decreases, and to pay the principal debt, it increases.
Construction loans(construction loans) are issued for the period of the construction cycle (up to 2 years). The borrower pays interest on a regular basis. Then the loan is re-registered as a mortgage and the payment of the principal debt begins.
Leasing. This form of financing has significant features and can be considered as an alternative to traditional bank lending. It is used to finance the rental of expensive equipment - sea and river vessels, communication satellites, aircraft, cars, computers, copiers, and in individual cases- real estate. According to the leasing agreement, the tenant receives equipment for long-term use subject to making periodic payments to the owner of the equipment (lessor). The text of the agreement determines the total amount and terms of the transaction, the amount and frequency of lease payments, tax incentives, repair and maintenance of equipment in working order, conditions for the extension of the lease and the redemption of property by the tenant.
A company wishing to rent equipment using the funds of a leasing company chooses a seller of the necessary equipment, taking into account the quality and price of the goods. Then a lease agreement is concluded with a leasing company. The latter negotiates with the supplier for the supply of equipment with delivery to the tenant. The cost of the goods is paid to the supplier, and the leasing company becomes the owner of the equipment. The lessee makes rental payments (including interest on financing) throughout the entire period of use of the equipment.
All parties involved in the transaction receive significant benefits. The seller sells the goods and receives its cost. The leasing company becomes the owner of the goods and, having leased it, receives a refund of the money spent, as well as a percentage for financing the transaction.
The tenant gets the opportunity to operate the equipment without spending large sums on investment and without freezing capital for long terms. In addition, he either makes no down payment at all (which he would be required to do if he bought equipment on credit), or makes a very small contribution, and also enjoys tax benefits due to accelerated depreciation and the fact that rental payments are considered operating costs and included in the cost of production. Finally, the tenant may acquire ownership of the equipment after the end of the lease term. residual value or extend the lease. Rent can be paid monthly, quarterly or semi-annually.
As for loans to individual borrowers, they are mainly related to the acquisition of real estate (apartments, residential buildings etc.), buying durable goods, getting loans for urgent needs.
Mortgage loans(mortgage loans). In the US, more than 80% of new homes are bought on credit. The average term of such loans is 27 years, the loan covers an average of 3/4 of the price of the house (and the buyer pays the remaining quarter in cash as a down payment at the time of purchase).
The main form of home equity loans is a fully amortizable, fixed-interest mortgage. The loan is secured by the purchased property; the amount of the debt is repaid in equal installments throughout the life of the loan; the interest set by the bank does not change.
Widespread in the USA consumer credit. Two main forms are known:
- installment loans;
- revolving loans (bank credit cards, overdraft).
Installment loans used to purchase durable household goods. Most of them in the US are related to the purchase of cars. The bank issues a loan in the amount of up to 90% of the cost of the car for a period of 2-3 years. Often the loan is not fully amortizable: it involves a large payment at the end of the term and contains a buyback clause. The latter means that the borrower can either repay the loan in full or hand over the car to the bank at the residual value to pay off the outstanding debt.
Revolving loans. The borrower opens a line of credit with the right to receive a loan within a certain period. The terms of repayment of the loan are determined by the wishes of the borrower. Interest is charged on the actual amount. At the same time, if the loan is repaid within a certain 30-day grace period, no interest is charged in favor of the bank.
Great Britain. Unlike the US, British banks use overdrafts as the main form of short-term lending to commercial enterprises. An overdraft is inextricably linked with a current account: if there is an appropriate agreement, the bank allows the account holder to write checks for amounts exceeding the credit balance in the account, within the established limit.
A typical feature of an overdraft is its short-term and transitory nature. It allows the client to solve the problem of financing short-term debt during periods when expenses temporarily exceed the receipt of money in the account. For businesses, this is a method of lending to working capital.
Overdraft terms in the UK range from a few months to several years, but the bank usually requires full repayment of the loan once a year and conducts an annual survey of the client's affairs. If there are doubts about the solvency of the client, the contract is terminated.
Overdraft interest is calculated daily on the outstanding balance. This form of loan is considered the cheapest, as the client only pays for the amounts actually used.
Another traditional form of lending used by English banks is credit on a loan account. Unlike an overdraft, a special loan account is opened for the client, in the debit of which the loan amount is credited. At the same time, the client's current account is credited and the latter can use it in the usual way, writing checks or withdrawing cash.
The terms of the loan on the loan account are different. They depend on the terms of the economic life of the purchased equipment or on the estimated time of the project. Loan repayment in many cases occurs in installments, equal monthly installments, which are credited directly to the loan account.
The most popular forms of private lending include:
- personal loans;
- budget accounts;
- Loans to buy houses.
personal loan associated with the opening of a personal loan account for the borrower. It is usually issued to finance installment purchases of durable goods.
When issuing a personal loan, the bank usually shows great caution, because in the UK this form of loan does not give the bank the right to dispose of the goods purchased, unlike real estate loans, where ownership of the bank is transferred by mortgage.
budget accounts. With this form, the borrower undertakes to deposit certain amounts into the account, and the bank pays regular payments, providing a loan if necessary. The credit limit depends on the amount of the contribution: usually the limit is 30 times the amount of the contribution.
Loan to buy houses. Introduced into the practice of English banks relatively recently. Previously, the need for these loans was met by special institutions - building societies and some other financial institutions. But since the beginning of the 80s, banks have actively invaded the market for lending for home purchases.
The conclusion of a loan agreement is preceded by an examination, the purpose of which is to assess the property and the possibility of its sale on the market. The loan amount can reach 95% of the value of the expert assessment.
Since the main source of loan repayment is the borrower's income, the loan amount cannot exceed the amount of his annual income by more than 2.5 times. If both spouses work in the family, their total income is taken into account.
Most home loans are repaid using the capital payment method. The payment includes both principal and interest payments. Accordingly, in the first years, the share of interest in payments will be higher than the repayment of the debt, but subsequently, with a decrease in the amount of debt, this share will progressively decrease.
The lump-sum repayment method is also used, when the debt is paid in full at the end of the contract at the expense of the insurance policy, which was purchased by the borrower specifically for this purpose. The term of the policy expires at the time of repayment of the loan or, in the event of the death of the client, at the time of his death. Interest is charged on the loan, the borrower is obliged to regularly make interest payments to the bank.
The loan term is up to 25 years or until the borrower retires. The bank requires a mortgage giving it the right to dispose of real estate, and, in addition, the property must be insured.
1.2.2 Cash transactions of banks
The bank's cash balance includes a working cash desk and a number of other highly liquid assets that do not bring interest income to the bank.
Cash on hand- these are banknotes and coins stored in the cash desk and safes of the bank and providing its daily need for money for cash payments - issuing money from accounts, changing money, providing loans in cash, paying bank expenses, paying salaries to employees, etc. d. At the same time, the bank must have a stock of banknotes and coins of various denominations in order to satisfy the requirements of customers.
The amount of cash in the bank's cash desk is determined by many factors. As a rule, the receipt of cash during the day is approximately equal to the amount of payments. However, there may be significant deviations associated with seasonal factors (growth in demand for cash on the eve of the holidays, at the height of the holiday season, etc.). The size of the required stock of cash is related to the geographical location of the bank: a bank located far from the local branch of the Federal Reserve Bank must keep a larger stock of cash.
Reserve accounts at the Federal Reserve Banks. By law, banks (and after 1980, all depository institutions, including those that are not members of the Fed) are required to maintain a reserve in an account with the Federal Reserve Bank of their district in a certain proportion to their deposit obligations. When calculating reserves, the net share of demand deposits minus payment documents in the process of collection is taken, and the amount on correspondent accounts of this bank in other banks.
Much attention was paid to the reserve calculation scheme. In the United States, two options were used: the deferred period and combined periods schemes.
Correspondent accounts in other banks. Banks open correspondent accounts with other banks and keep working balances there for the purpose of mutual provision of services for the collection of checks, bills of exchange and other payment documents, the purchase and sale of securities, currency, participation in syndicated loans, etc. Banks cover part of the costs of operations carried out for their correspondents by placing funds that are stored in loro accounts. But these incomes, as a rule, do not cover the costs. In recent years, banks are increasingly moving towards direct charging of commissions for each type of service.
Payment documents for collection. This is the largest item in the section of cash assets (over 40%). It consists almost exclusively of checks presented to the bank by customers to receive payment. Let a customer of bank A in New York show the bank a check drawn at bank B in San Francisco. In bank A, the account “Checks for collection” in the asset balance and the account “Deposits” in the liability will increase by the amount of the check. The check will be deposited at the Federal Reserve Bank in New York and sent to the Federal Reserve Bank in San Francisco to be presented for payment to Bank B. After payment of the check, its amount is debited from the reserve account of Bank B and transferred to the reserve account of Bank A in Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Accordingly, in the asset balance of bank A, the balance of the account “Reserve in the Federal Reserve Bank” will increase and the account “Checks for collection” will decrease.
Primary and secondary reserves. Banks pay great attention to forecasting the need for liquidity and, first of all, to providing a reserve position.
The funds in the reserve account at the Federal Reserve Bank and the cash on hand serve as the first line of defense against the bank's solvency. This is the bank's primary reserve. However, this reserve does not provide the bank's full need for liquidity. The Bank may experience a large unexpected outflow of deposits, in which case it will not be able to draw on the reserve. He will have to sell securities or call back loans. The need to quickly attract additional resources may also arise if the bank wants to issue a large loan to an important client.
Therefore, the bank needs to have a second line of reserves that allow it to urgently mobilize market funds. Secondary reserves include certain types of short-term assets: treasury bills, securities of various federal agencies, securities sale and repurchase agreements, bankers' acceptances, transferable certificates of deposit, federal funds, commercial paper, etc. All these securities and various liabilities in various combinations are included as constituent elements in the bank's asset portfolio, and their management is an important part of the overall operating strategy of banks.
1.2.3 Operations with securities
Commercial banks buy securities to maintain liquidity, to increase income, and also to use them as collateral for deposit obligations to federal and local authorities. The vast majority of all investments are in government securities. Investments in short-term government securities tend to yield lower returns, but are highly liquid assets with virtually zero default risk and negligible market rate risk. Long-term securities typically earn higher returns over the long term, so they are often held until or near expiration. Commercial banks are willing to invest in municipal securities, since the interest paid on them is not subject to federal tax (in the USA).
In order to provide liquidity, banks place relatively small amounts in other securities.
2 Principles of organization and new ways to improve the efficiency of active operations of a commercial bank
2.1 Foreign experience of commercial banks in the field of active operations and prospects for its use in Russia
The term "commercial bank" arose in the early stages of the development of banking, when banks served mainly trade. Merchants were the clients of the banks. Gradually, with the development industrial production there were operations on crediting the production cycle.
In countries with a developed credit system, a feature of modern banking is the implementation of many banking operations with a wide clientele. For example, the largest commercial banks (clearing banks) in the UK use about 100 different types of customer service operations in their activities, US commercial banks - over 150 types of operations, Japanese banks - about 300 types.
Currently, there are more than 15,000 commercial banks in the United States, the most common of which are branchless banks, i.e. banks without branches (branches). Therefore, the United States is the country with the largest number of commercial banks. For example, in Canada, all banking services are provided by no more than 20 banks with a wide network of branches.
Commercial banks are universal institutions that conduct operations in various areas of the loan capital market. The share of commercial banks in the United States accounts for about 35% of the total assets of all financial institutions in the country. Large banks provide a full range of financial services, including loans, deposits, settlements, etc., and all operations are accompanied by a high level of service. Commercial banks play the role of the main, basic link credit system USA.
The leading position in this country is occupied by a group of commercial banks, headed by the "big three" banks: Deutschebank, Dresdnerbank and Commerzbank, which have concentrated more than 50% of deposits and 40% of loans.
Commercial banks in Germany also perform the functions of investment banks, dealing with the placement of securities and long-term lending.
The emergence of Russian banking was noted at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. the emergence of state-owned banks, main task which was the direction of cash savings to maintain the class of Russian landowners. As the economy developed, the role of joint-stock and commercial banks in Russia changed and became more active.
The banking system was inefficient, its impact on production was extremely insufficient.
Despite certain shortcomings and problems identified during the banking reform in Russia, the main goal has been achieved: the client has the opportunity to choose his own financial intermediary, who seeks to perform a wide range of operations for the client in order to increase profitability, expand the revenue base, and all this happens in a competitive environment.
At present, due to the crisis in Russia, the number of commercial banks in 1998 Decreased by 221, and at the beginning of 1999. There are 1476 of them. If compared with the beginning of 1995, we can say that the number of commercial banks has decreased by about half.
But the main type of active operations of a commercial bank has been and remains to this day lending. Moreover, the proportion of short-term loans has grown tremendously. This is largely due to the high level of risk and uncertainty in a crisis.
In general, we can say that Russian commercial banks have not yet reached the level of active operations. foreign banks, but in order to increase the level of use of active operations of Russian commercial banks, you can use the experience foreign countries, but at the same time extract from it only the most positive, that which is applicable to our conditions.
So on the example of secured lending, consider overseas experience commercial banks and prospects for its use in Russia.
As world experience shows, collateral is one of the most reliable ways to secure credit obligations. The subject of a pledge can be any property owned by the pledgee under the right of ownership: houses, buildings, land, motor vehicles, as well as securities, bank deposits, etc. Its special form is a pledge of goods in circulation and processing. It is also possible to pledge property rights.
In the banking practice of the leading Western European countries and the United States over the next two decades, the volume of operations with loans secured by individuals and industrial and trading firms, and mortgage, consumer and other types of loans increased at an especially rapid pace. Moreover, for mortgage consumer loans in the second half of the 1980s, more than half of the total amount owed to commercial banks accounted for. Statistics show: 80-90 years. secured loans to the population were among the most profitable operations of the largest banks. The range of credit services has also been steadily expanding - loans to pay for tuition, installment purchases of computer systems, housing, etc. were especially popular.
Investment banks have also begun to actively resort to secured lending. So, over the past 10-15 years in the United States, lending to investments secured by stock values has become widespread.
Thus, Vneshtorgbank, as a rule, issues all loans, including those with a maturity of more than one year, only to its clients. At the same time, they accept guarantees only from reputable banks. When considering the issue of granting a loan, the bank first studies how effective the client's activity is. Loans are usually secured by collateral accounts with an agreed non-withdrawable balance covering 1-2 annual payments plus interest, pledges of securities, gold, goods and/or property, and cash deposits. If there is a threat of non-repayment of the loan, the bank suspends its use, and then notarizes the right of the lender to write off money from the borrower's accounts.
According to experts of Vneshtorgbank, arbitration can hardly help the bank in case of non-repayment of loans, because even the pre-arbitration procedure gives the borrower 30 days to hide the money. It is characteristic that in Western countries the borrower's account is blocked until a court decision is made. In addition, often arbitrators, not having the appropriate training, are poorly versed in matters of domestic and, even more so, international settlements. It is also not necessary to rely on the support of insurance companies, since their assets are insufficient, which leads to a delay in fulfilling their obligations.
Secured lending by Russian banks is carried out in the most liquid form - mainly secured by foreign currency deposits, securities, bills, goods. When issuing loans, banks tend to focus on their customers as borrowers or guarantors of loan repayment. Most banks avoid providing investment loans for the development of production and rarely use mortgages. Naturally, such a situation does not contribute to the development of long-term and most social significant forms collateral lending.
In world practice, one of the most common forms of bank loans secured by securities is a pawnshop loan, i.e. a loan in a fixed fixed amount provided by a creditor bank to a borrower secured by property or property rights. Lombard credit secured by securities is widely used. The need for it arises due to the need for credit resources and the unwillingness of the borrower to sell their securities.
In Russia, there is still no necessary economic and legal framework for the active development of lending operations secured by securities, but subscription to the shares of industrial companies and banks has become widespread. At the same time, banks act as brokers for the sale of shares and at the same time provide a part of potential subscribers with a loan secured by the purchased shares.
In the event that individuals fail to repay the loan issued to them for the purchase of shares, the bank has the right to sell the shares pledged from it, and if the proceeds from the sale of shares are not enough to pay off the debt, the bank has the right to demand payment from the former shareholders of the outstanding part of the debt. On the whole, today credit operations secured by securities in Russia are characterized by a high degree of risk.
Now, with regard to the mortgage system abroad, one of its main advantages is that it guarantees the certainty of legally significant actions in relation to real estate. The value of the latter as an object of collateral is explained by its high and usually stable price with an upward trend. The physical characteristics of the property make it possible to leave the pledged object in the possession and use of the mortgagor. AT Western Europe and the United States, a developed and legally regulated mortgage system has long been formed, which is based on clear methods of registering real estate, as well as strict legal registration the emergence and termination of a pledge right to immovable property.
The basis of the registration system in Germany, for example, is the Land Register, the role and procedure for which is regulated by the German Civil Code and a special act “Rules for maintaining the Land Register”.
There is another area of mortgage that is of particular importance for our country: mortgage lending in the housing sector. Russia will be able to avoid many negative phenomena accompanying the introduction of the system mortgage lending, if we turn to the experience of leading foreign countries. The United States is of the greatest interest in this area, where the mortgage market is highly developed and the credit-collateral mechanism is effective. state support and promotion of housing construction.
Regulation of mortgage relations in the United States is carried out in accordance with federal and state law. In accordance with this, the lender is obliged to provide the borrower detailed information about a loan, and an individual should not be limited in any way in his right to receive a loan.
Based on the fact that one of the important tasks of the state is to create an effective system of lending to agricultural and industrial enterprises and providing citizens with housing, the following initial principles of mortgage lending can be noted:
— protecting the interests of both creditors and borrowers. This goal is served by insurance, special government programs, the procedure for foreclosing mortgaged property, etc. ;
— the availability of mortgage loans for ordinary citizens and entrepreneurs;
— priority in the credit sector for organizations specializing in mortgages.
2.2 Main directions and prospects for the development of some active operations
Many authors define the main directions of active operations in different ways. Let's highlight some of them.
Credit in the context of Russia's transition to the market is a form of movement of loan capital, i.e. loan capital. Credit ensures the transformation of money capital into loan capital and expresses the relationship between creditors and borrowers. We highlight the main areas of credit operations:
1. Credit in a market economy is necessary primarily as an elastic mechanism for the transfer of capital from one sector to another.
2. The loan is mainly aimed at maintaining the continuity of the circulation of funds of operating enterprises, servicing the process of selling industrial goods, which is especially important in the conditions of the formation of market relations.
3. Loan capital is redistributed between industries, rushing, taking into account market guidelines, to those areas that provide higher profits or are given preference in accordance with national programs for the development of the Russian economy.
4. The loan is aimed at exerting an active influence on the volume and structure of the money supply, payment turnover, and the velocity of money. By bringing to life various forms of credit money, it can provide, during Russia's transition to a market economy, the creation of a basis for the accelerated development of non-cash payments, the introduction of their new methods. All this will help save distribution costs and increase the efficiency of social reproduction as a whole.
5. Thanks to the loan, there is a faster process of profit capitalization, and, consequently, the concentration of production.
6. The loan is aimed at stimulating development productive forces, accelerating the formation of sources of capital to expand reproduction based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress.
Without credit support it is impossible to ensure the rapid and civilized development of farms, small businesses, and the introduction of other types of entrepreneurial activity.
But the effectiveness of a bank's lending operations is determined by its credit policy. Credit policy forms the main directions of loans. Credit investments must be reliable and profitable for the bank. The task of the bank is to achieve the optimal combination of riskiness and profitability of its lending operations. An important direction of the credit policy is the choice of possible clients-borrowers, the types of services provided, the optimal organization of lending, the interest rate tactics of the bank, and the analysis of the financial capabilities of the borrower. When lending, the so-called “golden banking rule” should not be violated, according to which the terms of loans issued should not exceed the terms of the resources available to the bank.
As for credit policy in Russia at the present time, the following point can be noted.
In the main directions of the unified state monetary policy for 1999, it is envisaged "to consider the issue of expanding the state's participation in the capital of individual banks in order to expand their work with the real sector of the economy." This is completely insufficient. In addition, the state does not have money to participate in the capital of banks, and if such money is found, this does not mean at all that the banks that have received it will immediately start lending to production. Although, with the collapse of the government and corporate securities markets, banks have to look for an opportunity to effectively allocate their funds, the most promising direction is lending to the real sector of the economy. This contributes to its rise and creates a solid base for the development of commercial banks themselves. However, lending to the real sector of the economy today, even more than before, is associated with an increased risk due to the insolvency of borrowers. Many enterprises are on the verge of collapse, about half of the total work at a loss. The non-repayment of loans is also largely due to the weak control of banks in their issuance and use. It must be remembered that even when issuing loans under the most reliable collateral, one cannot neglect the assessment of the borrower's creditworthiness. This should be the cornerstone of any bank's credit policy. To make money on lending, the bank must make sure that customers first accept its terms and take this loan, and then return it; you will have to spend serious money on marketing research, on the analysis of specific projects and on assessing the solvency of borrowers.
Now, with regard to investment operations, they are mainly aimed at:
1. Expansion and diversification of the bank's income base.
2. Increase financial stability and lowering the bank's overall risk by expanding the activities the bank supports.
3. Ensuring the bank's presence in the most dynamic markets, maintaining a market niche.
4. Expansion of the client and resource base, types of services provided to clients through the creation of subsidiary financial institutions.
5. Increasing influence on clients (through control of their securities).
A purely hidden motive for investment operations is the desire to expand the influence of the bank, to take it beyond the scope of purely banking activities.
A particular motive for banks is to reduce the share of interest-free cash in assets and create a short-term portfolio of investments that is adequate in terms of liquidity to cash, but at the same time brings profit.
The main direction of the bank's active investment policy is to determine the range of securities that are most profitable for investing funds, and to optimize the structure of the investment portfolio for each specific period.
Trust operations:
One of the most promising directions development of trust activities for Russian economy is the cooperation of commercial banks with investment funds.
In modern conditions, for an individual investor who is not a professional in stock market, it is too difficult to invest his savings in such a way as to constantly maintain the optimal proportions of profitability, reliability and liquidity of the portfolio of securities he has acquired. Therefore, he should seek help from an investment institution. This allows, firstly, to obtain the necessary consultations; secondly, there is a more complex type of service compared to counseling. This is the accumulation of funds of small investors and the management of these funds, followed by an investment in a wide range of securities in order to minimize risk and increase income.
The purpose of investment funds is to issue shares to raise funds from investors and invest them on behalf of the fund in securities, as well as on bank accounts and in deposits. The Bank may act as an investment fund manager or be a depository of the fund. Cooperation investment fund and banks benefit both parties. The Fund, if the bank is a manager, receives qualified investment management, a guarantee of correct and effective use funds. If the bank is the fund's depository and services all operations, the fund has a real opportunity to reduce its costs and improve the efficiency of servicing shareholders. In turn, the bank, carrying out these operations, receives a commission and, managing the fund's portfolio, has the ability to control the activities of various companies.
Another direction in the development of trust services provided by commercial banks is their cooperation with pension funds that accumulate money for pension payments. The State Pension Fund is created to implement pension programs, to pay pensions to civil servants. Private funds are created by companies and are designed to increase workers' pensions. Pension funds invest all their temporarily available funds in securities. At the same time, they resort to the help of trust departments of commercial banks, entrusting them with these funds for management. The Pension Fund of the Russian Federation was established in 1990 in order to government controlled pension finance in the Russian Federation. Receipts to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation exceed, as a rule, pension payments. The excess amount can be used to purchase securities, issue a loan, etc. In this case, the fund will need qualified assistance, which it can obtain from the trust department of the bank.
The next promising direction in the development of trust relations in the Russian Federation is the intermediary activity for the transfer of funds from the loan capital market to income-generating real estate, the so-called mortgage investment trusts.
The development in Russia of investment activities related to real estate, to a large extent, lags behind the level of development of this area in developed countries ah, but the process currently taking place in the Russian economy makes it possible to predict an increase in activity in the real estate investment market.
It should also be noted that in the future, banks will manage property by proxy and testament in the manner of Western countries, and property will reach a certain size and will be in private hands, which will allow for qualified disposal, including through the mediation of banks.
As for the current crisis of commercial banks in Russia, the main problem is that the financial market has changed dramatically. There are practically no government bonds. The stock market is barely alive, the interbank credit market is not in the best condition due to the total distrust of banks to each other. In a word, everything on which banks were able to earn money practically no longer exists. Only remained currency market, however, recently the opportunities for speculation on it are significantly limited.
The way out lies in the fact that banks must learn how to make money on classic banking operations. To be called a bank, a financial institution needs to accept deposits, issue loans, make settlements and provide financial advice to its customers. And the choice of one or another of the most promising areas for the development of active operations will allow commercial banks to improve their activities.
2.3 New operations of commercial banks
Recently, commercial banks have faced a sharp increase in competition from numerous specialized lending institutions, as well as the largest industrial corporations that have created their own financial companies. The aggravation of competition was facilitated by the easing of direct government restrictions (“deregulation”) in the credit sector, undertaken in the 80-90s. in the USA, England, Japan and other developed countries. Competition encourages banks to search for new areas of activity, attracting additional customers who are offered new types of services. So, transactions for a period (futures) with currencies, stock indices, trading in currency options are widely used.
received a special distribution swap operations(from the English swop - to change), that is, a combination of a cash purchase (sale) with the simultaneous conclusion of a counter. transactions for a specified period. There are several types of "swap" operations: interest rate, currency and others.
Interest swaps are agreements between two debt holders, the terms of which involve the mutual exchange of interest payments. "Swap" may also include the exchange of various types of floating interest rates. In all these cases, the exchange of rights to assign interest income does not involve the exchange of capital amounts, which are represented by the corresponding debt obligations.
Currency "swap" - agreements for the mutual exchange of various currencies. Currency operation"swap" consists in buying foreign exchange on the terms of a cash transaction in exchange for a domestic one with subsequent redemption.
Swap transactions with currencies and interest rates are sometimes combined: one party pays, for example, interest on a floating interest rate in exchange for receiving interest payments at a fixed rate. Increasingly used "multipurpose services" scheme, which is a specific form of lending based on a flexible combination of commercial paper issuance programs, acceptances, cash loans, etc. Essentially, banks provide the borrower with access to a medium-term loan, and for the duration of the agreement, he retains the opportunity to freely use the markets for short-term financial resources.
Expanded very rapidly in recent years consumer loans, associated with the provision of bank credit cards.
The combination of payment and lending operations contributed to the popularity of these loans.
Interest payments on them are relatively high - usually 4-5 percentage points higher than income on short-term commercial paper. Approximately half of the US states have passed laws that set a ceiling on interest payments on these loans (up to 15% in some states).
The widespread use of credit cards encourages commercial banks to provide additional overdraft facilities to borrowers. Many banks charge higher interest rates on overdraft loans.
The largest banks sell their services in the field of servicing loans and payments using credit cards to smaller banks, thereby saving them from the large costs of organizing computer information systems.
Important services currently provided by credit institutions include leasing– leasing by banks of expensive equipment, machinery, Vehicle. To carry out these operations, banks create their own leasing departments (subsidiaries) that provide rental of production equipment.
Leasing contributed to a significant increase in companies - clients of commercial banks. After the end of the leasing agreement, many banks provide a loan for the purchase (at the residual value) of the leased equipment. In the United States, the Federal Reserve System (central bank) seeks to provide a certain correspondence between leasing operations and loans for the purchase of equipment. Therefore, holding companies are allowed to undertake the organization and financing of such a lease, which provides for an almost complete write-off of the value of the leased property - its residual value should not exceed 10% of the cost of acquiring this equipment.
In recent decades, the role of banks has increased in the implementation of international investment projects, in the so-called project financing. When implementing large-scale projects in capital-intensive industries (mining, energy, transport), complex financial support is increasingly required.
A range of services, known in banking practice under the name "factoring", that is (in the narrow sense of the word) the purchase by a bank or its subsidiary of a specialized company of the client's payment claims. Thus, the bank practically takes over the intermediary and provides additional (compared to simple commercial lending) services, charging a commission for them.
In modern conditions, the sphere factoring operations expanded significantly, including the maintenance of accounting accounts for the client company, the organization of transportation of products and its marketing, insurance, etc. The bank providing factoring services informs the buyer about the possibilities of switching to more favorable forms of payment, helps clients to make the most of the existing tax benefits when filling out their declarations, provides trust services, etc. The largest banks offer large transnational companies a comprehensive service for their current settlements on international transactions: collection of payments, repayment of claims, payment of salaries, etc. Cash receipts and expenses for all these operations can be summarized in a single balance sheet (in terms of the currency chosen by the client).
Banks play an important role in the development and subsequent dissemination of scientific and technological innovations, providing a mechanism financing of risky (venture) business in science intensive industries. To do this, many US commercial banks have separated from their membership venture capital financial companies, and Western European banks create special venture capital funds. The material interest of banks in financing risky business is based on the prospect of obtaining large founding profits when the shares of a venture company enter the stock exchange or include these shares in the sphere of organized circulation.
Conclusion
Having considered the features and essence of the active operations of commercial banks, based on the research, we can draw the following conclusions:
1. Active banking operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to obtain the necessary income and ensure their liquidity.
2. There were different points of view on the classification of active operations, such authors as Bukato V.I., Lvova Yu.I., Polyakova V.P. and Moskovkina L.A. include in active operations: cash, credit, investment and other operations, since these operations are the most common types of active operations of banks.
3. Lending has become the main type of active operations of a commercial bank. Moreover, the proportion of short-term loans has grown tremendously. This is largely due to the high level of risk and uncertainty in a crisis.
4.Credits provided by commercial banks can be classified according to a number of criteria (by terms, by types of security, by size, etc.).
5. The structure of Russian commercial banks' assets is dominated by two main items: loans to the economy and investments in government securities. In addition, a significant part of the assets is represented by interbank loans.
6. Recently, commercial banks have faced a sharp increase in competition from numerous specialized credit institutions, as well as the largest industrial corporations that have created their own financial companies. The aggravation of competition was facilitated by the easing of direct government restrictions (“deregulation”) in the credit sector. Competition encourages banks to search for new areas of activity, attracting additional customers who are offered new types of services. Swap operations are especially widespread.
Russian commercial banks have not yet reached the level of active operations by foreign banks, but in order to increase the level of use of active operations of Russian commercial banks, you can use the experience of foreign countries, but at the same time extract only the most positive from it, that is applicable to our conditions.
Thus, commercial banks are still the center financial system, concentrating the contributions of the government, the business community and millions of individuals. Through active operations, commercial banks open access to their funds to various types of borrowers: individuals, companies and the government. Banking transactions facilitate the movement of goods and services from producers to consumers, and the financial activities of the government. They provide a share of the means of circulation, and themselves act as a means of regulating the amount of money in circulation. Active operations clearly show that national system commercial banks plays an important role in the functioning of the economy.
The ability of the commercial banking system to carry out its activities skillfully and in full accordance with the needs and economic goals States largely depend on the effectiveness of its management. The management of any organized activity must be qualified, and the operations of commercial banks are no exception. And if we want the banking system to be stable, growing, adaptable and able to meet the needs of society, commercial banks must conduct their operations with the necessary caution, especially at the present time in a crisis.
List of used literature
1. Bukato V.I., Lvov Yu.I. "Banks, banking operations in Russia" - M .: "Finance and statistics", 1996
2. Banking: a textbook for universities / ed. IN AND. Kolesnikova, L.P. Krolivetskaya. - 4th edition, revised and supplemented - M .: Finance and statistics, 2000. - 464 pp.: ill.
3. Banking.: Textbook for universities / ed. O.I. Lavrushina - M .: Finance and statistics, 1999.- 576 pp.: ill.
4. Banks and banking operations. Textbook, ed. E.F. Zhukova-M.: "Banks and stock exchanges", 1997
5. Banking: Textbook /Ed. professor V.I. Kolesnikova, L.P. Kroshitskaya - M .: "Finance and statistics", 1998
6. Introduction to banking: textbook. Group of authors-M, 1997
8. "Banking". Directory
9. Banking. Volume 1. Creation and organization of the activities of a commercial bank.
10. Banking. Volume 7. Savings business.
11. Nikolaenko O.A. Personal savings of the population. // HSE Economic Journal. - 1998 - No. 4 - p.500
12. Banking system of Russia. Handbook of a banker. Book 1-M.: LLP Engineering and Consulting Company "DeKa", 1995
A commercial bank is a commercial enterprise that, under market conditions, builds its relationships with partners as ordinary market ones, i.e. based on profitability and risk. However, the bank must always balance profitability with security and liquidity considerations. A bank that has made too many loans, or fails to provide the liquidity needed in some unforeseen situations, may be insolvent. This is due to the fact that the fundamental principle of the successful functioning of any commercial bank is its activity within the limits of actually available resources.
However, it is important not only the quantitative equality of the resources of the bank and its credit investments, but also their coincidence in terms of qualitative characteristics.
In market conditions, a commercial bank is not only one of the types of commercial enterprises, but also plays an important role as a financial intermediary in the following areas: in the field of redistribution of temporarily free funds of legal entities and individuals on the basis of urgency, payment and repayment; when making payments between economic entities, when the responsibility of banks for the timely and complete execution of payment orders of their customers is especially important; when making transactions with securities, when the bank acts as an investment broker, investment consultant, investment company or fund.
Usually there are four groups of banking operations: passive; active; Banking services; banks' own operations.
The relevance of the research topic is determined by the fact that the first two groups of operations are the most common, and they account for the bulk of bank profits.
In developed countries with market economies, the volume of banking services has increased significantly in recent years. They are gradually becoming the second most important source of income for banks. Banks' own operations continue to play a subordinate role. To create a bank, a certain equity capital is initially required. But this is only the starting point for organizing your own banking business. Banking operations are based on borrowed funds. In economically developed countries, the ratio between own and borrowed capital is at the level of 1:10 to 1:100.
In this regard, the objectives of the study were defined:
1) The study of the main content of passive and active operations of a commercial bank.
2) Study of the main economic standards activities of a commercial bank.
The purpose of the study is the main banking operations.
I. PASSIVE OPERATIONS OF A COMMERCIAL BANK
1.1. Essence and content of passive operations
Passive operations are understood as such operations of banks, as a result of which there is an increase in funds held on passive accounts or active-passive accounts in terms of the excess of liabilities over assets (there are no active-passive accounts in the balance sheet of Russian banks) 1 . In other words, the passive operations of commercial banks are operations for the formation of sources of funds, resources of the bank, which are reflected in the liability of its balance sheet.
Note that the resources of commercial banks consist of two main types of sources: the bank's own funds and equivalent funds; attracted funds. feature banking business is the fact that a commercial bank operates mainly on borrowed funds, which in the bank's total liabilities amount to up to 90%, while its own only about 10% 2 .
Passive operations play an important role for commercial banks.
It is with their help that banks acquire credit resources in the money markets.
There are four forms of passive operations of commercial banks 3: a) contributions to the statutory fund (sale of shares and shares to the first owners); b) deductions from the bank's profit for the formation or increase of funds; c) deposit operations (funds received from clients); d) non-deposit operations.
Passive operations serve to raise funds. As a result of passive operations, the essence of which is to obtain a loan, banks receive funds that are used to finance active operations (Fig. 1). The results of these operations are reflected in the liabilities side of the bank's balance sheet.
Let us single out the proposition that the analysis of a bank's liabilities usually begins with its own capital 1 .
Rice. Passive operations of banks
Firstly, because without it it is hardly possible to start banking activities in general. Secondly, because the value of equity capital in the bank's activities is much more significant than its share in the total volume of liabilities. Equity capital is formed at the time of the bank's establishment and initially consists of the amounts received from the founders as their contribution to the authorized capital of the bank, which can be made both directly - if the bank is created in the form of a limited liability company, and through the purchase of shares - if the bank is established in the form of a joint stock company.
Equity performs three functions 1: 1) protective, 2) operational and 3) regulatory. Protective function means protection economic interests depositors and creditors, i.e. the possibility of paying them compensation in the event of losses or bankruptcy of the bank; as well as the continuation of the bank's activities regardless of the bank's losses.
The regulatory function is manifested in the fact that the size of the bank's own funds determines the scope of its activities. The operational function of equity is that it is a source of investment in equity tangible assets, source of development material base jar. The sources of the bank's own capital are: authorized capital, additional capital, bank funds, retained earnings of the reporting year and previous years 2 .
The authorized capital of a credit organization is made up of the contributions of its participants and determines the minimum amount of property that guarantees the interests of its creditors. For joint-stock banks, it is set as the sum of the nominal value of its shares acquired by shareholders, and for banks in the form of LLC - as the nominal value of all shares of its participants.
Additional capital includes: the increase in the value of property during its revaluation, share premium, that is, the difference between the placement price, shares at the time of issue and their nominal value; the value of property received free of charge by the bank from organizations and individuals.
The value of the bank's own resources is primarily to maintain its stability. At the initial stage of the bank's creation, it is the own funds that cover the primary costs (land, buildings, equipment, salaries), without which the bank cannot start its activities. At the expense of their own resources, banks create the reserves they need. Finally, own resources are the main source of investment in long-term assets.
From the foregoing, it can be noted that the structure of own funds of different banks is heterogeneous. They include: authorized capital; Extra capital; reserve fund, special purpose funds, etc., as well as retained earnings.
The attracted funds of banks cover about 90% of the total need for financial resources for the implementation of active operations, primarily credit. Their role is exceptionally high. Mobilizing temporarily free funds of legal entities and individuals in the market of credit resources, commercial banks with their help satisfy the needs of the national economy for additional working capital, contribute to the transformation of money into capital, and provide the population with consumer credit.
Both own and borrowed resources of a commercial bank are reflected in the correspondent account opened for it with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. This is an active account on the balance sheet of a commercial bank (30102), therefore, resources are reflected in the debit of this account, and investments in the credit of this account. one
Thus, the size of the debit balance reflects the size of the bank's free reserve (the amount of its resources that have not yet been invested in active operations). The larger the size of the free reserve, the more stable the given bank, but also the less profit it receives. On the contrary, the smaller the amount of free reserve, the less stable the bank, but also the more profit it extracts. Therefore, every commercial bank strives to optimize the balance of funds on the correspondent account.
It can be noted that passive operations make it possible to attract funds to banks that are already in circulation 1 . New resources are created by the banking system as a result of active credit operations. With the help of the first two forms of passive operations, the first large group of credit resources is formed - own resources. The following two forms of passive operations form the second large group of resources - borrowed, or attracted, credit resources.
The bank's own resources are bank capital and equivalent items.
The bank's funds are formed from profit in the manner prescribed by the bank's constituent documents, taking into account the requirements of the current legislation. These include 2: 1) The reserve fund, which serves to cover the possible losses of the bank. 2) The Fund for Industrial and Social Development serves to finance the technical improvement of banking. 3) The material incentive fund serves to encourage the bank's staff. 4) The Fund of the Chairman of the Management Board of the bank serves to finance areas not provided for by other funds of the bank. In addition to the above, banks create: 5) Special insurance funds under the depreciation of investments in securities and possible losses on bank loans. 6) Accumulation funds represent the retained earnings of the bank, reserved as financial support for its industrial and social development and other activities to create new property.
In practice, there are two ways to increase equity 1: 1) profit accumulation and 2) attracting additional capital in the financial market.
Accumulation of profit can take place in the form of accelerated creation of reserve and other funds of the bank with their subsequent capitalization or in the form of accumulation retained earnings previous years. This is the cheapest way to increase capital without affecting the existing bank management structure. However, the use of a significant part of the profits to increase equity means a decrease in the current dividends of the bank's shareholders and may lead to a drop in the market value of shares of open joint-stock banks.
1.2. Deposit and non-deposit operations
Passive credit operations, first of all, include deposit operations.
Deposit operations are called banks' operations to attract funds from legal entities and individuals in deposits, either for a certain period or on demand. Deposit operations usually account for the bulk of their liabilities 2 .
3 can act as subjects of deposit operations: state-owned enterprises and organizations; state institutions; cooperatives; joint-stock companies; mixed enterprises with participation of foreign capital; party and public organizations and funds; financial and Insurance companies; investment and trust companies and funds; individual individuals and associations of these individuals; banks and other lending institutions.
The objects of deposit operations are deposits - the amounts of money that the subjects of deposit operations deposit with the bank, deposited on bank accounts for a certain time due to the current procedure for banking operations 1 .
By terms, deposits are usually divided into two groups 2: demand deposits; time deposits (with their varieties - deposit and savings certificates).
Demand deposits are funds on current, settlement, budget and other accounts related to settlements or intended use, as well as demand deposits.
Due to the frequency of transactions on these accounts, transaction costs are usually higher than on time deposits, but since banks usually pay no high interest or they do not pay interest at all (then clients can be provided with various kinds of benefits), these resources are relatively cheap for the bank. At the same time, this is the least stable part of the resources, banks need to have a higher operating reserve for them in order to maintain liquidity. Therefore, the optimal share of these funds in the bank's resources is up to 30-36%. In Russia, the share of these funds is much higher.
Demand deposits also include credit balances on correspondent accounts and demand deposits of other banks in this bank.
Term bank deposits are funds deposited with a bank for a fixed term in an agreement. On them, the owners are usually paid a higher percentage than on demand deposits and, as a rule, there are restrictions on early withdrawal, and in some cases on replenishment of the deposit.
Bank operating costs for time deposits, as well as reserve requirements, are usually lower than for demand deposits, but interest payments are much higher, so they are not always profitable for banks. But banks are interested in attracting term deposits, as they can be used for long-term investments.
Term bank deposits are divided into conditional (the deposit is kept until the occurrence of any event), with prior notice of withdrawal of funds (when the client must apply for withdrawal within a predetermined time frame) and term deposits proper.
Actually term deposits on terms of storage are subdivided into deposits with the term: up to 30 days; from 31 to 90 days; from 91 to 180 days; from 181 days to 1 year; from 1 year to 3 years; over 3 years.
bank certificates. Term deposits can be issued by a bank promissory note, as well as deposit and savings certificates.
In Russia, the right to issue savings certificates is granted by banks subject to certain conditions determined by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and Decrees of the Russian government.
The Bank is entitled to place savings (deposit) certificates only after registration of the terms of issue and circulation of certificates in the territorial office of the Bank of Russia.
Savings deposits are beneficial to banks in that they are usually long-term and, therefore, can serve as a source of long-term investments.
Their disadvantages for banks are as follows 1: 1) The need to pay increased interest on deposits and thus reducing the margin (the difference between the interest on active and passive credit operations). 2) The exposure of these deposits to various factors (political, economic, psychological), which increases the risk of a rapid outflow of funds from these accounts and loss of bank liquidity. 3) The inability of the bank to renew these resources on an ongoing basis.
Commercial banks in the conditions of competition in the market of credit resources must constantly take care of both quantitative and qualitative improvement of their deposits. They use for this different methods(interest rate, various services and benefits for depositors). The procedure for conducting deposit operations is regulated by the bank's internal documents. At the same time, all banks observe several fundamental principles for organizing deposit operations. They are as follows: deposit operations must promote profit or create conditions for profit in the future; deposit operations should be varied and conducted with different entities; special attention in the process of organizing deposit operations should be paid to term deposits; interconnection and consistency between deposit operations and credit operations in terms of terms and amounts of deposits and credit investments should be ensured; organizing deposit and credit operations, the bank should strive to minimize its free resources; the bank should take measures to develop banking services that facilitate the attraction of deposits.
For passive operations, in particular for deposits, banks are required to create required reserves. For funds on settlement, current and deposit accounts (except for deposits received from other banks), accounts of budgets of various levels and off-budget funds established norms for required reserves deposited with the Bank of Russia (in the balance sheet of a commercial bank account 30202, 30204) 1 .
In the Russian Federation, the required reserve ratios have been established since 1989, since the formation of the first commercial banks. In accordance with the Federal Law “On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)”, the amount of required reserves as a percentage of the liabilities of a credit institution, as well as the procedure for depositing them with the Bank of Russia, is established by the Board of Directors of the Bank of Russia. Required reserve ratios may not exceed 20% of a credit institution's liabilities.
Non-deposit sources of attracting resources include: obtaining loans in the interbank market; an agreement to sell securities with a repurchase, discount bills and receive loans from the central bank; sale of banker's acceptances; issuance of commercial paper; obtaining loans in the Eurodollar market; issue of capital notes and bonds.
In the conditions of the formation of the Russian banking system, most of the non-deposit sources of attracting resources have not received their development. Russian banks Of these sources, interbank loans and loans from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation are mainly used.
In Russia, the market for interbank loans was organized in 1991 by the Moscow International and Moscow Central Stock Exchanges, which were the first to organize credit auctions. The interbank loan market is divided into three segments: three-month loans; one-two-month loans; "short money" (the shortest-term loans up to 1 - 2 days) 1 .
Such a non-depository source of resources as the issue of bonds has great prospects for Russian banks. Banks have the right to issue bonds in the amount of not more than 25% of the authorized capital and after full payment of all previously issued shares. Bonds can be both registered and bearer. Loan repaid with net profit bank or, in case of its deficiency, at the expense of the reserve fund. To influence the rate of bonds, the bank can buy or sell them on the stock exchange.
In the 90s of the XX century. repo operations with government securities became widespread.
II. ACTIVE OPERATIONS OF A COMMERCIAL BANK
2.1. Composition and structure of assets
The active operations of the bank constitute an essential and defining part of its operations. Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use on its own behalf of borrowed and own funds to obtain the appropriate income.
The main types of active operations of a commercial bank are: granting loans to legal entities and individuals on various terms and for various periods; operations with securities on its own behalf and at its own expense; investment; REPO operations; currency dealing operations; non - traditional operations of commercial banks 1 .
Active operations are carried out by commercial banks in order to make a profit while maintaining the required level of bank liquidity and optimal distribution of risks for certain types of operations. The need to comply with these requirements forces banks to place part of their assets in investments that do not generate income.
The structure of assets is understood as the ratio of items of the bank's balance sheet asset of different quality to the balance sheet total. The quality of a bank's assets is determined by the appropriate structure of its assets, the diversification of active operations, the volume of risky assets, the volume of critical and defective assets, and signs of asset volatility.
According to the economic content, all assets of a commercial bank can be divided into 4 groups 2:
1. Free reserves are cash on hand, balances on a correspondent account with the RCC of the Bank of Russia and on correspondent accounts with other credit institutions. Free reserves are the most liquid type of a bank's assets. But, as a rule, these assets either do not generate income, or provide minimal income.
2. Loans and funds placed in the form of deposits with other credit institutions, including the Bank of Russia.
When placing resources in the form of loans or deposits, the bank has fixed requirements for borrowers. The bank's income from these operations is established at the conclusion of the transaction. It is paid as a percentage.
3. Investments are the investment of the bank's resources in securities and other financial assets (foreign currency, precious metals), as well as equity participation in joint economic activities.
By investing in various securities and other financial assets, commercial banks pursue different goals. Thus, by buying foreign currency, gold or government securities, commercial banks increase their liquidity reserve, since these values can be quickly converted into the necessary funds for the bank. By making so-called portfolio investments (buying shares, bonds, other types of securities), commercial banks expect to receive additional income in the form of dividends, interest and capital gains.
To participate in the management of the enterprise, banks acquire controlling stakes, make direct production investments.
4. Tangible and intangible assets of the bank itself (internal investment). These include the cost of a bank building, equipment, and other property necessary for the operation of the bank. It should be noted that the successful development of the bank, the strengthening of its position in the market of loan capital requires a constant increase in the cost of expanding and improving the material base of the bank. This type of assets not only does not bring income to the bank, but is constantly associated with expenses. In addition, it is characterized by very low liquidity.
Despite the fact that the assets of a commercial bank can be divided into four categories: cash and cash equivalents; investments in securities; loans; buildings and equipment.
However, each bank has a problem in establishing and maintaining a rational asset structure. In addition, the structure of assets is largely determined by the prevailing national characteristics. The highest share of cash and other cash, funds on accounts in central banks: Spain (12.94%), Italy (7.86%) and Russia (6%). The lowest is in the banks of Japan, USA, Belgium 1 .
Big differences between banks specific gravity other assets are explained by differences in the classification of assets, in particular, the transit operations of banks.
Nevertheless, one can see the overall picture of the diversification of active operations of banks and the problems facing the definition of their rational structure in a particular country. This is largely determined by the peculiarities of legislation and accounting.
For example, the low activity of Spanish, US and Russian banks in the interbank markets is associated with different trends. Thus, in Spain there were situations of shortage of the money supply in banks in general and because of the required reserves (12.94%), pulling money from the interbank market. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that in this article, Spanish banks additionally take into account monetary instruments for payment and in circulation, which are accounted for by banks in other countries in other assets. In the US, the situation is largely due to the reflection of the share of required reserves in other assets (66.12%). It also pulls the bank's funds from the interbank markets. In Russia, a similar situation is connected not so much with the high share of required reserves (6%), but with the consequences of the payment crises of August 1995, 1998. in the interbank market.
The high share of interbank transactions of UK banks also follows from the fact that they include cash on demand and short-term notice, and placed in a bank for a period of more than 30 days.
From the foregoing, we can conclude that the structure of assets is largely determined by the characteristics of banking legislation and accounting, as well as the influence of the external environment.
However, if we use a larger grouping of the composition of assets by main types of banking activities, assets by main types of banking activities, we can draw the following conclusions: 1. The main place in the bank's active operations is occupied by credit. Their share ranges from 19.90 to 83.25%. 2. The second place among banking assets is occupied by investments in securities (from 2.15 to 23.87%). 3. In third place are cash assets (from 0.2 to 12.94%)). 4. The share of other assets is determined by accounting features and includes a wide range of transactions from investments in fixed assets (buildings and structures) to various settlement operations of the bank (from 2 to 78%) 1 .
Nevertheless, despite the general trends in the composition and structure of assets of banks in Russia and banks in other countries, each bank should strive to create a rational asset structure, which depends primarily on the quality of assets. However, the financial crisis caused significant changes in the composition of the assets of Russian commercial banks.
The structure of assets is determined not only by the volume of assets and external circumstances, but also by the policy of a particular bank in the direction of improving the quality of assets. In this regard, the subdivision of assets into gross assets and net assets (cleared of risk and other items) 2 is essential.
Gross asset structure
I. Non-income-generating assets: cash, correspondent accounts with other banks, FOR, fixed assets, intangible assets, debtors, funds in settlements, use of budgetary and extra-budgetary funds, capital investment financing, capital expenditures, current expenses, deferred expenses , revaluation of foreign currency and securities, diverted funds from profit, losses of the reporting year and previous years.
II. Income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans to customers, banks and the public, arrears on loans and interest, factoring, leasing, participation, securities, issued guarantees.
III. Total assets-gross.
In the structure of the net balance, assets are reduced by the amount of regulatory, savings and transit accounts.
Net asset structure
I. Non-income-generating assets: cash, correspondent accounts with other banks, FOR, fixed assets and intangible assets at residual value, debtors in excess of creditors.
II. Income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans less reserves to cover losses on loans to customers, banks and individuals in rubles and foreign currency. Factoring and leasing, net of the previously established provision for depreciation of the cost of these operations. Securities less reserves for depreciation of securities, promissory notes, frozen liabilities.
The ratio of net assets to gross assets gives an idea of the rational structure of assets, which depends primarily on the quality of assets.
Separate performance indicators of credit institutions in Russia, grouped by the size of assets, show the influence of volumetric characteristics on the rationality of the asset structure.
The quality of assets is determined by their liquidity, the volume of risky assets, the share of critical and defective assets, the volume of income-generating assets.
To ensure the daily ability of the bank to meet its obligations, the structure of the assets of a commercial bank must comply with the qualitative requirements of liquidity. For this purpose, all assets of the bank are divided into groups according to the degree of liquidity, depending on the maturity. The bank's assets are divided into highly liquid assets (ie assets that provide instant liquidity): liquid assets, assets of long-term liquidity, general liquidity and liquidity in operations with metals 1 .
Instant liquidity assets (highly liquid) include: cash, precious metals, funds on correspondent accounts of credit institutions with the Bank of Russia, funds of banks deposited for settlements by checks, funds of credit institutions for cash services of branches; funds of participants in settlements in settlement non-banking credit institutions, funds of participants in the RC of the OSM, funds of the participants of the RC of the OSM to ensure settlements and following the results of operations on the OSM; deposits placed with the Bank of Russia, demand deposits placed with credit institutions and non-resident banks, funds for settlements using plastic cards in credit institutions and non-resident banks, funds provided on demand to bank customers — legal entities; investments in public debentures and bonds of internal and external foreign currency loans that are not collateral for loans received by banks; investments in bonds of the Bank of Russia, not burdened with obligations; funds on correspondent accounts in non-resident banks of countries from among the “group of developed countries”, less funds on correspondent accounts, in part of the amounts on which the arrest was made, as well as funds debited from customer accounts, but not transferred to the correspondent account of a credit institution due to for lack of funds.
The composition of liquid assets, in addition to the listed highly liquid assets, includes natural gems, funds on correspondent accounts with correspondent credit institutions and non-resident banks in hard currency (net of funds on correspondent accounts with non-resident banks from among the “group of developed countries” in hard currency ), funds on correspondent accounts in non-resident banks in foreign currencies with limited conversion and precious metals, funds of the participants of the Settlement Center of the OSM, deposited in the settlement center for guaranteeing settlements on transactions in the sectors of the OSM; all loans granted by a credit institution in rubles and foreign currency (excluding loans extended at least once and newly issued to repay previously issued loans), deposits and other placed funds, funds provided by a credit institution, discounted promissory notes and other debts to the bank with a maturity of within the next 30 days.
Long-term liquidity assets include all loans issued by the bank, including overdue loans (excluding government-guaranteed loans, loans secured by government and local government securities, precious metals in bullion); placed deposits and funds, including those in precious metals, with a remaining maturity of more than a year, as well as 50% of guarantees and guarantees issued by the bank for a period of more than a year.
2.2. Classification of active operations of a commercial bank
Assets of commercial banks can be grouped according to 1) the level of profitability, 2) the level of risk and 3) the degree of liquidity 1 .
According to the level of risk, all assets in accordance with the instructions of the Central Bank - RF No. 1 of October 1, 1997 are divided into 5 groups. Each group is assigned an appropriate risk coefficient, which shows how reliable the investment of the bank's funds in certain assets (%): 1st group - risk-free assets 0; 2nd group - low-risk assets 10; 3rd group - assets of medium risk 20; 4th group - assets with increased risk 70; 5th group - high-risk assets 100.
Thus, the first group includes assets that are free from risk. These are funds on the correspondent account and funds on the bank's reserve account with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. The bank's assets in the form of cash balances are assigned a risk factor of 2%, which does not exclude a small degree of risk of this operation.
The second group includes assets with a minimum risk ratio of 10%. These are loans guaranteed by the Government of Russia; loans secured by precious metals in bullion; loans secured by government securities. However, as practice has shown, investing funds of commercial banks under government guarantees, secured by government securities, turned out to be a more risky operation than 10%, as provided for in Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. Therefore, when performing active operations, banks should have complete and up-to-date information on the state of affairs in the money market in order to take measures to reduce banking risks.
The maximum risk (100%) is associated with the active operations of banks assigned to the fifth group of assets. These are promissory notes, short-term and long-term loans to customers, debtors business transactions and capital investments of the bank, as well as the bank's own buildings. Of course, the probability of losing funds on assets of this group is different, but in a certain situation they can be maximum.
The bank's assets must be liquid, that is, easily converted into cash. From the point of view of liquidity, in banking practice there are 1: a) highly liquid assets, i.e. assets that are directly in cash (reserves of the first stage) or easily convertible into cash (reserves of the second stage). Reserves of the first stage include cash on hand, balances on correspondent accounts (if there are no restrictions on their use). Reserves of the second order are easily marketable government securities, when there is a capacious and liquid secondary market; b) short-term liquid assets - short-term loans and securities that have a secondary market; c) hard-to-sell assets - long-term loans, securities that do not have a developed secondary market, equity participation in joint activities; d) low-liquid assets - investments in fixed assets of the bank.
Active operations of commercial banks, taking into account their focus on making a profit, can be divided into the following types: lending to legal entities and individuals; investment projects; currency dealing operations; non-traditional operations of commercial banks. Lending to legal entities and individuals is the main type of active operations of a commercial bank.
Depending on the subject of lending, loans are: 1) state; 2) commercial; 3) personal; 4) international.
In addition to these forms of credit, a bank loan stands out as the main form of modern credit.
However, the types of loans differ not only by the subjects of their receipt, but also by other criteria. These include: the relationship of credit with the movement of capital; the scope of the loan; credit term; payment of the loan; loan security.
According to the connection of credit with the movement of capital, it can be divided into two types: a loan of money and a loan of capital. A loan of money is associated, as a rule, with consumer or other purposes, when a loan does not bring an increment in the social product, but is spent and repaid at the expense of already created savings. The loan of capital, on the contrary, presupposes not the "eating up" of the product, but its increase; in this case, the borrower is obliged to use the loan in such a way as to obtain a new value with its help, and not only repay the loan, but also pay loan interest. A capital loan is the most typical type of bank loan.
According to the scope of application, loans are divided into loans in the sphere of production and in the sphere of circulation. For modern Russian practice, it is more typical to invest funds not in the sphere of production, as is customary from the standpoint of a healthy economy, but in the sphere of circulation, where the turnover and profitability of operations is higher than in the production sector.
Therefore, unfortunately, the loan portfolios of modern Russian banks almost entirely consist of short-term loans with a predominant concentration in the field of trade and procurement business.
Of course, this state of affairs is connected with the state in which the Russian economy is currently located, but, nevertheless, it is fraught with a real threat of bankruptcy, since, according to the analysis of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, most of the bankrupt banks pursued a similar credit policy and had a similar structure of their loan portfolio.
Depending on the term, bank loans are divided into short-term, long-term and medium-term.
Traditionally, modern credit is characterized by a predominantly short-term character. From the point of view of many countries market economy, short-term loans are loans, the term of use of which does not exceed one year. Basically, they serve the circulation of working capital, the current needs of customers.
Long-term loans include loans with terms exceeding 6 years. These loans serve the need for funds necessary for the formation of fixed capital, financial assets, as well as some varieties of working capital.
Medium-term loans are loans with a maturity ranging from 1 to 6 years. The scope of their application coincides with the service of needs through long-term credit.
In the category of criteria for classifying bank loans, not the last place is occupied by the payment of the loan. Based on this criterion, it is possible to distinguish bank loans with a market interest rate, increased and preferential. The market price of a loan is the price that is formed on the market at the moment, based on supply and demand, for various types of bank loans. In terms of inflation, this is a rather volatile price that tends to rise. Loans with an increased interest rate, as a rule, arise in connection with a high risk of lending to a client, violation of lending conditions by him, a forecast of an increase in the cost of credit resources, etc. Loans provided on conditions of preferential interest are an element of a differentiated approach to lending, arise shareholders, when refinancing centralized loans of the issuing bank, lending to bank employees.
Loan security. An important element of lending and a criterion for classifying bank loans is their security. In this regard, loans may be directly secured, indirectly secured or not. In international practice, loans are often divided into secured, unsecured and partially secured.
In world banking practice, you can see other classification criteria. So, in most countries, loans are divided into two blocks: loans to legal entities and loans to individuals. If loans of the first block are provided for production purposes (for example, to expand production and sell a product), then loans of the second block serve the personal needs of the population. Such a classification turns out to be important both for diversifying the risk of credit investments and for organizing lending (the procedure for issuing, processing, repaying, securing a loan, etc.).
Bank loans are also detailed according to other, more “small” features. They are divided depending on the currency used in the lending process (rubles, dollars, German marks, French francs, etc.), depending on whether the loan debt is limited or not limited, constantly renewable (revolving) and interrupted loans , etc.
A serious reason for allocating a special group of loans is their size. In world and domestic banking practice, the so-called "large" loans are regulated. The category of large loans in Russia includes loans, the amount of which to one borrower (or group of borrowers) exceeds 5% of the bank's capital.
The implementation of investment projects with commercial banks involves activities aimed at developing and implementing investment portfolio management strategies, achieving the optimal combination of direct and portfolio investments in order to generate profit, maintaining an acceptable level of banking risk and liquidity of the bank's balance sheet.
Direct investment is a direct investment in production, the acquisition of real assets. Portfolio investments are made in the form of buying securities or providing funds in a long-term loan. The bank's income from investment operations consists of interest on securities, an increase in their market value, commissions, as well as the difference between the purchase price and the sale price of a security.
Currency dealing. Commercial banks are a natural intermediary between the supply and demand of foreign currency. Therefore, the task of the bank in this area is to provide its customers with the opportunity to convert their assets denominated in one of the currencies into holdings in another currency. Such conversion is carried out through operations on spot and forward terms, i.e., during each working day, the bank seeks to acquire foreign currency at the most favorable, from its point of view, exchange rate ratios with a view to its subsequent sale for profit.
Non-traditional operations of commercial banks include operations that can be performed by organizations other than commercial banks. These include: settlement and cash services; trust operations; leasing; factoring; issuance of guarantees and guarantees; collection services, etc.
Banks receive income from these operations either in the form of commissions or in the form of service fees.
III. ECONOMIC STANDARDS FOR THE ACTIVITY OF A COMMERCIAL BANK
The security of a credit institution is largely determined by the extent to which its activities meet certain economic parameters (established economic standards). These include norms that ensure the economic stability of credit institutions by maintaining the minimum size and adequacy of the bank's capital, its liquidity and solvency, and regulating risk in certain banking operations 1 . The features of these standards are that they: may vary depending on economic conditions (the Central Bank of the Russian Federation is obliged to announce upcoming changes in the standards no later than a month before they enter into force; changes in some of them, for example, the minimum amount of equity capital, the Central Bank The Russian Federation notifies banks at least 3 years before its introduction); are established taking into account international standards and on the basis of consultations with banks, banking associations and unions; have a special national character, their list, quantitative parameters of each of them differ, for example, from common European norms; are fixed in special methods of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation; quite stable (some of them do not change for several years); differentiated by types of banks.
With the adoption in 1990 of the Law of the RSFSR "On the Central Bank of the RSFSR (Bank of Russia)", the Bank of Russia revised the system of economic standards that existed until that time. In accordance with the Law, the Bank of Russia expanded the range of economic standards, introduced their division into basic (mandatory) and estimated (indicative), established differentiated levels of limit values for these indicators depending on the type, order and year of the bank's establishment.
Since April 1991, in connection with the introduction of Instructions of the Central Bank of the RSFSR No. 1, all commercial banks began to calculate 10 indicators that can be divided into 4 groups: the first group characterized the bank's capital adequacy; the second group is the limitation of the bank's obligations; the third - liquidity indicators of the bank's balance sheet; fourth group - maximum size risk per borrower 1 .
The adoption in April 1995 of a new edition of the Federal Law "On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)" introduced certain changes to the above described system for assessing the liquidity of banks.
First, the new law has significantly changed the set of economic standards established centrally. Secondly, unified criterion levels of economic standards have been introduced in relation to different types of banks. Thirdly, the division of economic standards into mandatory and evaluative ones has been eliminated. Fourthly, the methodology for calculating individual indicators, their limit values are close to international standards.
The new system of economic standards was put into effect on April 1, 1996 after the publication of new Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, which determines the specific mechanism for its application. In the future, the content of this Instruction was clarified and changes were made to the main ones related to the transition of commercial banks from January 1, 1998 to new Plan accounts.
Let us consider the main provisions of the current system of economic standards for the activities of credit institutions.
The economic standards include 2: the minimum amount of the authorized capital; capital adequacy ratio; liquidity ratios; the maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers; the maximum size of large credit risks; the maximum amount of risk per one creditor (depositor); the maximum amount of loans, guarantees and sureties provided by the credit institution to its participants (shareholders, shareholders) and insiders; the maximum amount of attracted cash deposits(deposits) of the population; the maximum amount of bill obligations of the bank; standards for the use of own funds of credit institutions for the acquisition of shares (shares) of other legal entities.
The bank's authorized capital is the core of its own capital, so the requirement to increase the minimum amount of authorized capital for newly created banks is a prerequisite for strengthening their capital base, and hence increasing the liquidity of banks. For newly established credit institutions, the minimum authorized capital was established as of January 1, 1998 in an amount equivalent to ECU 4.0 million as of July 1, 1998 - ECU 5 million.
Accordingly, the requirement for the minimum size of the bank's own funds (the sum of authorized capital, funds and retained earnings), which was set at an amount equivalent to 5 million ECU (starting from January 1, 1999), is increased.
The capital adequacy ratio (N1) reflects the ratio of equity to risk-weighted assets.
However, when calculating this indicator, the following changes: a) the methodology for calculating equity; b) classification of assets according to the degree of risk; c) levels of risk factors.
Equity capital is calculated as follows: core + additional capital - the amount of the under-created reserve for possible losses on loans under 2-4 risk groups - the amount of the under-created reserve for depreciation of investments in securities - loans, guarantees, guarantees provided by the bank to shareholders, participants and insiders in excess of relevant limits — excess of costs for the acquisition of tangible assets over own sources — overdue receivables for more than 30 days — bank investments in shares of subsidiaries and affiliates, as well as investments in the capital of resident credit institutions — subordinated loans provided by resident credit institutions.
To determine the sum of the total risk of assets (Ar), 5 groups of assets are introduced, differing in the degree of risk 1 .
The main composition of these groups is given in the following table.
The formula for calculating the indicator characterizing capital adequacy (H1) is as follows:
To
H1 =——————————————— x 100
Ar - Rts - Rk -Rd + KRV + KRS
where K - equity;
Ap is the sum of risk-weighted assets;
Рц - the total amount of the created reserve for the depreciation of securities;
Рк - the amount of the created reserve for possible losses on loans;
Rd - the amount of the created reserve for possible losses on other assets and on settlements with debtors;
KRV - the amount of credit risk to off-balance sheet operations of the bank (except for futures transactions);
KRS - the amount of credit risk for futures transactions.
The specified classification of assets according to the degree of risk is close to the recommendations of the Basel Committee on Banking Regulation and Supervision, adopted in July 1998 2 .
The minimum allowable value of H1 was set at (%): from the balance sheet as of 01.02.99 - 8% for banks with a capital of 5 million ECU and above and 9% for banks with a capital of 1 to 5 million ECU; from the balance as of 01.01.2000 – 10% and 11% respectively.
Table
Groups of assets by risk
|
Asset groups |
Risk coefficient, % |
|
1st group |
|
|
Funds on correspondent and deposit accounts with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation |
|
|
Required reserves listed with the CBR |
|
|
Investments in bonds of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, not burdened with obligations |
|
|
Investments in government debt obligations of countries from among the “group of developed countries”, not burdened with an obligation |
|
|
Accounts of settlement centers of the OSM in institutions of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation |
|
|
Cash desk and equivalent funds, precious metals in vaults and in transit |
|
|
2nd group |
|
|
Loans guaranteed by the Government of the Russian Federation |
|
|
Loans secured by precious metals bullion |
|
|
Funds in the settlement centers of the OSM |
|
|
Investments in government debt obligations and bonds of internal and external foreign currency loans of the Russian Federation, not burdened with obligations |
|
|
3rd group |
|
|
Investments in debt obligations of entities |
|
|
Funds on correspondent accounts with non-resident banks of countries from among the “group of developed countries” in hard currency |
|
|
Loans granted to non-resident banks from among the “group of developed countries” |
|
|
Loans secured by securities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local self-government bodies in the part equal to the market value of these securities |
|
|
Loans secured by government securities of the Russian Federation in the part equal to the market value of these securities |
|
|
4- group |
|
|
Funds on accounts in Russian resident banks |
|
|
Funds on accounts in non-resident banks of countries outside the “group of developed countries”, excluding neighboring countries |
|
|
Securities for resale |
|
|
5th group |
|
|
All other assets |
The liquidity ratios of a commercial bank include: instant liquidity ratio (N2); standard current liquidity(H3); long-term liquidity ratio (N4); general liquidity ratio (N5); liquidity ratio for operations with precious metals (N14). The first three of them characterize the contingency of assets and liabilities in terms of amounts and terms.
The instant liquidity ratio (N2) is the ratio of the amount of highly liquid assets to the amount of the bank's liabilities on demand accounts:
H2 \u003d LAM / OVm x 100%
where LAm - highly liquid assets, which include cash balances and funds equivalent to them; balances of funds of credit institutions on a correspondent account with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation; deposits placed with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation; bank funds deposited for settlements by checks; funds of credit organizations for cash service branches; accounts of the participants of the RZORTSB; deposits placed with non-resident banks on demand and for settlements using bank cards; other placed funds in terms of on demand, as well as investments in government debt obligations and obligations of internal and external foreign currency loans that are not collateral for loans received.
OVm – demand liabilities, defined as balances on correspondent accounts of correspondent credit institutions, including hard currency + balances on accounts of RCSD participants + funds of clients on brokerage operations with securities + deposits and other funds raised by banks on demand and for settlements using bank cards + overdue debt on received interbank loans and overdue interest on them + part of funds in settlements (letters of credit payable, settlement checks, etc.) + balances on settlement, current accounts of customers + demand deposits of individuals + other attracted funds on demand + bills of exchange issued by a credit institution and bank acceptances on demand + other obligations (obligations under letters of credit, to the budget for taxes and extra-budgetary funds, to suppliers and contractors and other creditors, with payment within 30 days).
The minimum allowable value of H2 is set within 20%. The current liquidity ratio (N3) is calculated by the formula
H3 \u003d LAt / OVt x 100%,
LAt - current liquid assets of the bank;
OVt - liabilities of the bank on demand and for a period of 30 days.
The bank's current liquid assets (LAt) include highly liquid assets, as well as loans and deposits placed with banks for up to 30 days; loans granted to banks and customers for a period of up to 30 days, promissory notes discounted by the bank with a maturity on demand and up to 30 days, debt to the bank with a maturity within the next 30 days. Current liabilities (OCT) include: call liabilities and liabilities maturing within the next 30 days. These include: deposits with a term of one day to one month; promissory notes issued by the bank with a presentation period of 30 days; received loans from other banks (including the Central Bank of the Russian Federation), with a maturity within 30 days; guarantees of this bank with a maturity within the next 30 days; obligations due more than 30 days later.
The minimum allowable value of H3 is set from the balance sheet as of February 1, 1999 in the amount of 70%.
Long-term liquidity ratio H4 is calculated using the formula
H3 \u003d Krd / (K + OD) x 100%,
where Krd - loans issued by the bank, placed deposits with a maturity of more than a year remaining to maturity, as well as 50% guarantees of guarantees issued by a bank with a maturity of more than 1 year;
K - equity capital of the bank;
OD - long-term liabilities of the bank (maturity over 1 year).
Long-term liabilities include: the bank's liabilities on deposits and loans received by the bank, as well as on the bank's debt obligations circulating on the market with a maturity of more than 1 year.
The maximum allowable value of H4 is set at 120%.
The general liquidity ratio H5, which reflects the percentage of liquid assets and the total amount of assets, is calculated by the formula
H5 \u003d LAt / (A-Ro) x 100%
where LAt - current liquid assets;
Am - the adjusted amount of all assets on the balance sheet is determined as the total amount of assets on the balance sheet, with the exception of own shares of the authorized capital, redeemed by the bank (account 105); amounts of overdue interest on operations with precious metals (accounts 20319 and 20320); funds reflecting settlements with branches and between divisions of the same credit institution (accounts 30302, 30304 and 30306); amounts of overdue interest on granted interbank loans (account 325); settlements with the budget for financing capital investments (accounts 40104, 40109, 40111); amounts of overdue interest on granted loans (account 459); parts of deferred expenses (accounts 01404, 61405, 61406, 61407, 6140X); bank expenses (account 702); the amount of bank losses (account 704); the amount of profit use (account 705); part of the amount of unpaid interest on bills of exchange;
Ro - required reserves of a credit institution.
Liquidity ratio for operations with precious metals
(H14) is calculated by the formula:
H14 = LAdm / OVdm,
where LAdm - highly liquid assets in precious metals in physical form;
OVDM - liabilities in precious metals on demand and with a maturity in the next 30 days.
The minimum allowable value of H14 is set at 10%. As noted above, the bank's liquidity is largely determined by the quality of assets, which in turn depends on their diversification. Ratios N6, N7, N9, N9.1, N10, N10.1 have been introduced to regulate the credit risk associated with the provision of large amounts to the bank's customers.
The maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers is regulated by the H6 indicator, the calculation formula for which is
H6 \u003d Krz / K x100%,
where Krz is the total amount of the bank's claims against the borrower or a group of related borrowers on loans, including overdue, discounted promissory notes, loans, and amounts not collected by the bank under its guarantees. These requirements are included in the calculation taking into account the degree of risk (in accordance with the calculation of Ap);
The value of K additionally includes: the amount of credit risk on instruments reflected on off-balance sheet accounts (for example, guarantees and guarantees issued by the bank; credit lines not used by customers; uncovered irrevocable letters of credit issued or confirmed by the bank, etc.); the amount of credit risk on futures transactions concluded with these persons.
Related borrowers are understood as legal entities or individuals-borrowers that are economically and legally related to each other, i.e. having common property, mutual guarantees and obligations or controlling each other's property, as well as the combination of one individual in leadership positions. Control means direct or indirect (through subsidiaries) ownership of more than 50% of the votes by a party (person) or the ability to control more than half of the votes by special agreement with its other shareholders or in accordance with its charter.
The maximum allowable value of H6 is set at 25%.
The maximum amount of large credit risks H7 characterizes the ratio of the total amount of large loans to the bank's own capital. A large loan is considered to be the total amount of claims on one borrower (Krz) exceeding 5% of the bank's equity capital. The formula for calculating this indicator:
H7 \u003d Kskr / K x100%,
where Ccr is the total amount of credit risks;
K is the equity capital of the bank.
The maximum allowable value of H7 is set at 800%.
The maximum amount of credit risk per shareholder (participant) N9 is determined by the formula
H9 \u003d Kra / K x 100%,
where Kra - the value of the Krz indicator in relation to those shareholders (participants) whose contribution to the authorized capital of the bank exceeds 5% of its value registered by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;
K is the equity capital of the bank.
The maximum allowable value of H9 is set at 20%).
The total amount of large credit risks for shareholders (participants) of the bank N9.1 is defined as the total value of credit risks Krz for all shareholders (participants), whose contribution to the authorized capital exceeds 5% of the registered value.
The maximum allowable value of the norm H9.1 is set at 50%.
The maximum amount of credits, loans provided by the organization to its insiders. as well as issued in their favor, is regulated by the H10 standard, which is calculated as follows:
H10 \u003d Cree / K x 100%,
where Cree is the total amount of risk-weighted claims of the bank (including off-balance sheet) against the bank's insider and related persons;
K is the total capital of the credit institution.
In accordance with international practice, insiders include individuals, shareholders holding more than 5% of shares, directors (president, chairman, their deputies), members of the board, members credit committee, heads of subsidiaries and parent structures and other persons who may influence the decision to grant a loan, as well as relatives of insiders and former insiders.
The maximum permissible value of H10 per insider and related persons is set at 2%. The total amount of credits and loans issued to insiders (N10.1) cannot exceed 3% of the bank's equity capital.
The regulation of deposit risks affecting the bank's liquidity is carried out in Russian practice through the introduction of N8, N11, N11.1, and N13 standards.
The maximum amount of risk per creditor (depositor) H8 in accordance with Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation reflects the ratio of the amount of deposits, deposits or loans received by the bank, guarantees and guarantees, account balances of one or related creditors (depositors) and the bank's equity :
H8 \u003d Ovkl / K x100%,
where Ovkl - the total amount of the bank's obligations to one or a group of related creditors (depositors);
K - equity capital.
When calculating the bank's liabilities (Obkl), it is necessary to keep in mind the following: the amount of the deposit, the deposit (except for the demand deposit), the amount of the loan received should be determined taking into account the following risk coefficients, set as a percentage, depending on the period remaining until repayment: up to 6 months - 100%; from 6 months to 1 year - 80%; over 1 year - 50%; balances on correspondent, settlement (current) accounts, as well as demand deposit accounts are calculated according to the average chronological formula.
The maximum amount of attracted cash deposits (deposits) of the population (H11) characterizes the ratio of the total amount of deposits (deposits) of citizens and the value of the bank's own capital. This indicator should not exceed 100%.
Ratio H11.1 regulates the maximum amount of a bank's liabilities to non-resident banks and non-resident financial institutions. The formula for calculating this indicator:
H11 \u003d He / K x100%,
where He is the total amount of the bank's liabilities in rubles, including on subordinated credits (loans) to the extent not included in the calculation of the bank's own capital, foreign currency and precious metals to non-resident banks and non-resident financial institutions;
K is the equity capital of the bank.
The maximum allowable value of H11.1 is set at 400%).
The risk ratio of own promissory notes N13 is calculated by the formula
H13 \u003d VO / K x 100%,
where VO are bills of exchange issued by the bank and banker's acceptances, as well as 50% of the bank's off-balance sheet liabilities from the endorsement of bills of exchange, avals and bill of exchange mediation.
The maximum allowable value of Hc is set to 100%.
Compliance with the above standards is mandatory for banks. By their observance, they judge how reliable the bank is, how safe it is from the position of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, how safe the risks of its activities are for its customers who have entrusted their deposits to it.
The regulation emanating from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and promoting the security of credit institutions covers other parties. The law obliges the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to establish mandatory rules for credit institutions for conducting banking operations, accounting, preparation and submission of accounting and statistical reporting, has the right to present qualification requirements to the heads of the executive bodies of the bank, its chief accountant. According to the legislation of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, it establishes control over the shareholders of a commercial bank, may require information about their financial position, business reputation, requires notification of the acquisition by other legal entities or individuals or their group of more than 5% of the shares (shares) of a credit institution, preliminary approval in respect of those who acquires more than 20% of the shares (shares) of this bank.
CONCLUSION
The traditional operations for the bank are: cash settlements, passive and active operations.
Cash settlements within national economy may be cash or non-cash. At non-cash form settlements, entries are made on bank accounts when money is debited from the payer's account and credited to the recipient's account.
Non-cash payments are made through bank accounts, which are opened for customers to store and transfer funds after the submission of relevant documents. Bank accounts can be of the following types: settlement accounts (settlement sub-accounts), current, deposit, currency. Accounts can be simple and contract accounts.
Traditionally, a bank is viewed as an institution that accepts deposits and makes loans. These operations are either passive or active.
The bank's passive operations are fundraising operations. Funds received as a result of passive operations are the basis for further banking activities. Active operations of banks are operations for the placement of funds.
The result of the bank's passive operations is the formation of bank resources, which are reflected in the liabilities side of the bank's balance sheet. Sources of bank resources can be own, borrowed and borrowed funds. The main source of formation of banking resources are customer deposits (raised funds).
Customer deposits or deposits can be: perpetual (on demand), term (obligations that have a certain period), conditional (funds can be withdrawn upon the occurrence of predetermined conditions).
Funds held on demand accounts are intended for making current payments. On these accounts, banks pay or extremely low interest or pay no interest at all. This is due to the fact that demand deposits practically do not leave banks the opportunity to refinance funds and use them for a long time, as well as the fact that banks take on the work of maintaining settlement and cash services for customers.
Another type of deposit is term deposits, i.e. attracted by the bank for a certain period of time. These deposits pay higher interest depending on the term of the deposit, since banks can manage the depositor's funds for a longer time and have the opportunity to reinvest them. Most often, funds for special purposes are placed in term deposits, for example, amounts intended for the purchase of equipment in six months.
An intermediate position between term and termless deposits is occupied by a savings deposit opened for the purpose of accumulating or maintaining monetary savings (usually these are transactions with the population).
A variety of term deposits are deposit and savings certificates. The “certificate” is understood as a written certificate of the issuing bank (the bank that issued this certificate) about the deposit of funds. The certificate certifies the right of the depositor or his successor to receive, after a certain period of time, the amount of the deposit with interest. A certificate of deposit is issued only to legal entities, a savings certificate - only to individuals residing in Russia.
Passive operations of a commercial bank include loans received from other banks, at the expense of which borrowed credit resources of a commercial bank are formed. The object of interbank credit (IBK) is free credit resources of financially stable banks. In order for these resources to generate income, banks place them in other borrowing banks. The terms of repayment of credit resources range from one month to several years.
Passive operations of commercial banks are associated with the formation and development of the bank's own capital. Banks' own funds include the statutory fund, the reserve fund, other funds formed from deductions from the bank's profits, insurance reserves, as well as profit not distributed during the year.
Banking assets consist of capital and current items. Capital asset items are land, buildings owned by the bank; current - bank cash, discounted bills and other short-term liabilities, loans and investments.
Up to 80% of banking assets account for accounting and loan or active credit operations and operations with securities.
Loan operations - lending to enterprises and the population - are traditional types of banking services. It is no coincidence that the bank is called a "credit enterprise". The largest part of the banks' assets is still placed in lending operations.
The classification of bank loans is carried out according to several criteria: depending on the recipient, purposes, terms, security, etc.
Economic standards include: the minimum amount of authorized capital; capital adequacy ratio; liquidity ratios; the maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers; the maximum size of large credit risks; the maximum amount of risk per one creditor (depositor); the maximum amount of loans, guarantees and sureties provided by the credit institution to its participants (shareholders, shareholders) and insiders; the maximum amount of attracted cash deposits (deposits) of the population; the maximum amount of bill obligations of the bank; standards for the use of own funds of credit institutions for the acquisition of shares (shares) of other legal entities.
LIST OF SOURCES USED
Law of the Russian Federation "On Amendments and Additions to the Law of the RSFSR "On Banks and Banking Activities in the RSFSR" dated February 3, 1996 //Money and Credit. - 1996. - No. 2.
Law of the Russian Federation “On Amendments and Additions to the Law of the RSFSR “On the Central Bank of the RSFSR (Bank of Russia)” dated April 26, 1995 // Money and Credit. - 1995. - No. 5; Economy and life. - 1995. - No. 19.
Law of the Russian Federation "On the Monetary System of the Russian Federation" of September 23, 1992// Gazette of the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR and the Supreme Council of the RSFSR. -1992.-№43.
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision: Collection of documents and materials / Comp. Yu. V. Kuznets. - M .: Center for Training of Personnel of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, 1997.
Ivanov VV Bank reliability analysis. - M .: Russian Business Literature, 1996.
Makarova G.P. System of banking marketing: Proc. allowance. — M.: Finstatinform, 1997.
MirkinYa. M. Banking operations. — M.: Infra-M, 1996.
Molchanov A. V. Commercial bank in modern Russia: Theory and practice. - M .: Finance and statistics, 1996.
On Approval of the Rules for Maintaining Accounting in Credit Institutions Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation and Additions and Amendments to the Chart of Accounts for Accounting in Credit Institutions of the Russian Federation. Order of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated June 18, 1997 No. 02-263 // Bulletin of the Bank of Russia. - 1997. - No. 49.
Shirinskaya EB Operations of commercial banks: Russian and foreign experience. - M .: Finance and statistics, 1995.
Economic analysis bank activities: Proc. allowance. -M.: Infra-M, 1996.
1. The content and classification of active operations of the bank
2. Structure and quality of assets of a commercial bank
3. Liquid Assets and Factors Affecting the Bank's Liquidity
4. Estimation and indicators of liquidity of a commercial bank
8.1. The content and classification of active operations of the bank
Active operations of banks are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal to generate profit and maintain their liquidity, and, consequently, to ensure financial stability. Active operations include operations to allocate resources.
Active operations are secondary to passive ones. This is primarily due to the fact that a commercial bank can place only those resources that it attracted as a result of passive operations, and these are borrowed funds, and the bank must form its active operations in such a way that the timing of the return of money to the bank corresponds to the timing of their return to customers. In this case, the bank will be solvent, financially stable, which, undoubtedly, will additionally attract customers to it.
There are many classifications of active operations according to one principle or another. The most common classification of active operations by economic content, which consists of:
Loan operations;
settlement operations;
cash transactions;
Investment and stock transactions;
currency transactions;
Warranty Operations.
Loan operations are operations to provide funds to a borrower for a specified period and for a specified fee. Settlement transactions - operations for crediting and debiting funds from clients' accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties.
Cash transactions are operations for receiving and issuing cash.
Investment and stock operations are operations for the bank to invest its funds in securities and shares of non-bank structures for the purpose of joint economic and financial and commercial activities, as well as placement of funds in the form of term deposits in other credit institutions.
Currency transactions are transactions for the purchase and sale of foreign currency and other currency values, including precious metals in coins and bullion.
Guarantee operations are operations after the issuance by the bank of a guarantee (guarantee) of payment of the client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions (may be in the form of a commission).
Commercial banks carry out active operations within the available resources, that is, within the limits of cash balances on the correspondent account and on hand.
A general description of the active operations of a commercial bank is given in the following table:
|
Cash |
Accumulation of funds on a correspondent account; Accumulation of funds in cash; Placement of funds on correspondent accounts in other banks; Placement of funds on deposits in other banks. |
|
Loan portfolio |
Providing loans to legal entities in national and foreign currencies (including overdue and prolonged ones); Providing loans in the national currency to individuals (including overdue and prolonged ones); Provision of interbank loans in national and foreign currencies (including overdue and prolonged ones). |
|
Securities for sale |
Investments in government and corporate securities for sale. |
|
Investment portfolio |
Investments in government and corporate securities for investment; Investments in the authorized capital of enterprises and organizations. |
|
Property and intangible assets |
Investments in fixed assets; Investments in inventory items; Investments in intangible assets. |
Thus, the active operations of banks are mainly operations for the issuance (placement) of various types of loans. The most common type of credit issued by banks is a short-term loan to economic agents, usually to finance the purchase of goods. material values. This loan can be issued with or without real security, but in any case, to obtain it, it is necessary to have accounting financial documents characterizing the financial position of the borrower, so that the bank can at any time assess the likelihood of timely repayment of the loan.
8.2. Structure and quality of assets of a commercial bank
The structure of assets is understood as the ratio of items of the bank's balance sheet asset of different quality. The quality of the bank's assets is determined by the appropriate structure of its assets, diversification of active operations, the volume of risky assets, the volume of critical and defective assets, and signs of asset volatility.
There are different approaches to determining the structure of bank assets. Basically, the assets of commercial banks are divided into four = categories:
Cash on hand and equivalent funds;
Investments in securities;
Loans;
Buildings and constructions.
The first component of banking assets is "Cash and cash equivalents". Banks are required by regulators to hold part of the funds in cash or in the form of demand deposits in accounts with other banks. In addition, cash on hand is needed to change money, return deposits, satisfy loan requests, and cover various operating expenses, including wages personnel, payment for various materials and services. The article "Cash and funds equivalent to them" includes funds on accounts with the Central Bank and other commercial banks, banknotes and coins, as well as payment documents in the collection process. An important reserve is, of course, cash in bank vaults. But the bank's management, of course, seeks to reduce their value to a minimum, determined by security considerations. In addition, in Russia the costs of protecting and insuring cash are very significant, cash does not bring income. Funds on accounts in correspondent banks also practically do not generate income. Therefore, the item "Cash and cash equivalents" is the most liquid for the bank, but the least profitable.
With regard to the article "Securities", today most of all investments in securities account for government securities. Investments in short-term government papers usually generate lower returns, but are highly liquid assets with zero default risk and negligible market rate risk. Long-term securities usually bring high returns over a long period. To increase the bank's income, they usually invest in bonds. public institutions and, to a limited extent, into premium corporate bonds.
The main activity of commercial banks in terms of generating income is the provision of loans. By placing funds in various types of lending operations, the bank's management considers it a priority to obtain a high income while meeting the needs of customers in a loan. The degree, liquidity of a particular credit transaction is not of paramount importance.
The quality of assets is determined by their liquidity, the volume of risky assets, the share of critical and defective assets, the volume of income-generating assets. To ensure the daily ability of the bank to meet its obligations, the structure of the assets of a commercial bank must comply with the qualitative requirements of liquidity. For this purpose, all assets of the bank are divided into groups according to the degree of liquidity, depending on the maturity. The bank's assets are divided into highly liquid assets (i.e. assets that provide instant liquidity); liquid assets, long-term liquidity assets.
Instant liquidity assets (highly liquid) include: cash and cash equivalents, funds on accounts with the Central Bank, government debt obligations, funds on correspondent accounts with non-resident banks of OECD member countries in hard currency, investments in domestic foreign currency loan bonds net of funds received as payment for foreign exchange shares and funds received on the correspondent account of the bank from the sale of securities. These funds are classified as liquid, as they are subject, if necessary, to immediate withdrawal from the bank's circulation.
Liquid assets include, in addition to the listed highly liquid assets, all loans issued by the credit institution in rubles and foreign currency maturing within the next 30 days (excluding extended at least once and newly issued loans to repay previously issued loans), and as well as other payments in favor of the credit institution to be transferred within the next 30 days (debtors, as well as overpayment amounts to be returned to the credit institution as of the reporting date from the mandatory reserves fund).
Long-term liquidity assets include all loans issued by a credit institution in rubles and foreign currency with a remaining maturity of more than a year, as well as 50% of guarantees and guarantees issued by a bank with a validity of more than a year, loans overdue minus loans guaranteed by the Government, secured securities secured by precious metals. Establishing a rational asset structure, the bank must comply with liquidity requirements, and therefore, have a sufficient amount of highly liquid, liquid and long-term liquid funds in relation to liabilities, taking into account their terms, amounts and types, and comply with instant, current and long-term liquidity standards.
The instant liquidity ratio is calculated as the ratio of the sum of the bank's highly liquid assets to the sum of its liabilities on demand accounts. The current liquidity ratio is the ratio of the amount of liquid assets of a credit institution to the amount of its liabilities on demand accounts and for up to 30 days. The long-term liquidity ratio is defined as the ratio of loans issued by a bank with a maturity of over a year to the credit institution's capital and liabilities over a year.
8.3. Liquid Assets and Factors Affecting the Bank's Liquidity
Taking into account the types of liquid assets used to fulfill the bank's obligations, they distinguish between liquidity accumulated by the bank (cash, highly liquid securities) and purchased, more precisely, newly acquired (attracted interbank loans, issuance of bank bills, deposit and savings certificates). Compliance with these signs of the bank's liquidity (timely fulfillment of obligations and without losses) is due to many internal and external factors that determine the quality of the bank's activities and the state of the external environment.
Internal factors include:
The quality of the bank's assets;
The quality of funds raised;
The conjugation of assets and liabilities by terms;
Competent management;
bank image.
The quality of a bank's assets reflects three properties: liquidity, riskiness, profitability.
Liquidity of assets - the ability of assets to be transformed into cash without loss through their sale or repayment of obligations by the debtor (borrower), while the degree of possible losses is determined by the riskiness of the assets.
The bank's liquidity is also determined by the quality of the funds raised, i.е. liquidity of liabilities, stability of deposits and moderate dependence on external borrowings.
The liquidity of liabilities characterizes the speed of their repayment, and hence the degree of revolving for the bank while maintaining the total amount of funds raised at a certain level. The liquidity of liabilities reflects their term structure. If a bank's attracted resources are dominated by deposits or loans with short maturities, then the liquidity of liabilities is high, and accordingly, this may create problems with the liquidity of the bank as a whole. In such a situation, the bank must often replace one borrowed funds with others.
A serious impact on the bank's liquidity is exerted by the conjugation of assets and liabilities in terms of amounts and terms. The fulfillment by the bank of its obligations to the client involves the coordination of the terms for which the funds are invested with those for which they were provided by their depositors. Ignoring this rule in the activities of a bank operating primarily on attracted resources will inevitably lead to the impossibility of timely and complete fulfillment of obligations by the bank to creditors.
The internal factors that determine the degree of liquidity of the bank also include management, i.e. a system for managing the bank's activities in general and liquidity in particular. The quality of bank management is expressed in the presence and content of banking policy; rational organizational structure of the bank, which allows to solve strategic and current tasks at a high level; in the development of an appropriate mechanism for managing the bank's assets and liabilities; in a clear definition of the content of various procedures, including those related to the adoption of the most responsible decisions.
Among the factors that determine the bank's liquidity is its image. The positive image of the bank in the market conditions allows it to gain an advantage over other banks in attracting resources and thus quickly eliminate the lack of liquidity. It is easier for a bank with a good reputation to ensure the stability of its deposit base. He has more opportunities to establish contacts with financially stable clients, which means he has a higher quality of assets.
The bank's first-class image allows it to develop ties with foreign partners, which also helps to strengthen its financial condition and liquidity.
Bank liquidity also depends on a number of external factors. These include:
General political and economic situation in the country;
Development of the securities market and the interbank market;
Bank of Russia refinancing system for commercial banks;
Efficiency of supervisory functions of the Bank of Russia.
The general political and economic situation in the country creates the prerequisites for the development of banking operations and the successful functioning of the banking system, ensures the stability of the economic basis for the activities of banks, and strengthens the confidence of domestic and foreign investors in banks. Without these conditions, banks are not able to create a stable deposit base, achieve profitability of operations, improve their tools and management system, and improve the quality of their assets.
The development of the securities market makes it possible to provide an optimal system of liquid funds without loss of profitability, since the fastest way to convert bank assets into cash in most foreign countries is associated with the functioning of the stock market.
The development of the interbank market contributes to the rapid redistribution of temporarily free cash resources between banks. From the interbank market, in order to maintain its liquidity, a bank can raise funds for a different period, including for one day. The efficiency of obtaining funds from the interbank market depends on the general financial situation, the organization of the interbank market, and the authority of the bank.
Another factor is closely connected with this factor - the system of refinancing of commercial banks by the Bank of Russia. A credit from the Bank of Russia becomes a source of replenishment of the liquid assets of a commercial bank.
The effectiveness of the supervisory functions of the Bank of Russia determines the degree of interaction between the state supervisory authority and commercial banks in terms of liquidity management. The Bank of Russia has the right to establish certain liquidity ratios, guiding banks to comply with these ratios. The more accurately the established indicators reflect the real state of the bank's liquidity, the more opportunities the bank itself and the supervisory authority have to identify liquidity problems in a timely manner and eliminate them.
8.4. Estimation and indicators of liquidity of a commercial bank
In modern Russian practice, two methods for assessing liquidity are used: by means of coefficients and based on cash flow. The basis of the coefficient method is the estimated liquidity indicators established by the Bank of Russia. There are currently three indicators:
H2- Bank's instant liquidity ratio. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity within one business day. Limit value 15%;
H3- current liquidity ratio of the bank. Regulates the risk of loss of liquidity by the bank within 30 calendar days closest to the date of calculation of the standard. Limit value 50%;
H4- standard of long-term liquidity of the bank. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity as a result of placing funds in long-term assets. Limit value 120%
Along with the state regulation of banks' liquidity through the establishment of economic standards, liquidity assessment is being developed in Russia based on the calculated liquidity position: general and in the context different currencies. With this method, liquidity is understood as a flow (with the method of coefficients - as a stock).
The liquid position of the bank reflects the ratio of its monetary claims and liabilities for a certain period. If over the period (by a certain date) claims to customers (assets) exceed the bank's liabilities, there will be an excess of liquidity, if liabilities, meaning an outflow of funds, exceed claims (receipts) - a lack of liquidity.
The state of liquidity is assessed for the current date and all subsequent ones, i.e. for the future. To determine the liquid position, a restructured balance sheet is drawn up, in which assets and liabilities are classified by maturity and demand.
There are two main approaches to asset management.
Common fund method . This method is one of the simplest to use in practice.
The funds that a commercial bank places in the course of its activities come from various sources and have different qualities.
The essence of this method is to combine all available resources into a "common pool" for their further distribution among assets in accordance with the bank's preferences. As long as the placement of funds corresponds to the achievement of the goals set by the bank, when conducting specific active operations, it is not taken into account from which sources of funds they are carried out.
Asset Allocation Method (Conversion of Funds) . The essence of this method is to compare the terms and amounts of assets and liabilities of the bank. To do this, the sources and main directions of placement of funds are grouped and compared in such a way that the funds of a certain group of liabilities are placed in certain groups of assets, taking into account the profitability of investments and maintaining the liquidity of the bank.
All banking operations on the basis of financial intermediation are divided into two classes: passive and active (Fig. 11.2).
Operations to raise funds are called passive.
Operations for the placement of funds are called active.
As a result of passive operations, the bank forms its bank money resources.
As a result of active operations, the bank places its resources among borrowers (consumers of funds), recipients of funds, and also invests them in various financial instruments(bonds, bills, other securities) and investment objects (real estate, fixed assets for the formation of the material and technical base of their activities, etc.).
Most active operations are aimed at generating income.
Accordingly, the resources accumulated as a result of passive operations are called in banking practice liabilities, and resources allocated (embedded in something) - assets jar.
Rice. 11.2.
Commercial bank resources come from four sources:
Sources of banking resources and their placement are presented in fig. 11.3.
Rice. 11.3.
Accordingly, the bank's liabilities are formed from these sources. They are divided into two large groups:
In its turn, bank equity consists:
Funds raised include:
Liabilities have two main properties, they are payment and urgency, which are important for the economy of the bank and its liquidity.
Banking resources are paid, but vary greatly in this respect between groups. For its own resources (own capital), the bank pays dividends to shareholders from its profits. In order to maintain their image and the market value of their shares, large banks annually pay fairly high dividends to their shareholders. Such banks equity capital is an expensive resource.
From the point of view of payment (value for the bank) of attracted funds, the breakdown of this group of resources into customer funds on current accounts and borrowed funds is of great importance. The price for a bank of "customer money" is several times lower than the price of borrowed funds raised on the financial market. That's why money on clients' settlement accounts as a banking resource is practically free. On the contrary, the most borrowed resources are expensive.
Of great importance is the division of liabilities by maturity. So, the bank owns its own capital permanently (indefinitely). Customer funds are to funds "on demand "- the client at any time has the right to write off the balance on the current account. Therefore, the bank must carefully use client money, while maintaining a certain liquidity reserve.
Borrowed funds but the terms of attraction are divided into the following:
Bank resources formed on the basis of a loan are of a term nature.
Passive operations are divided according to the sources of formation of banking resources:
The funds raised are obligations jar. The obligations of the bank include: balances on settlement and other current accounts of clients, borrowed funds, as well as accrued but not paid interest on deposits and deposits, interest on debt securities issued by the bank (bonds, bills, deposit and savings certificates ).
The bank's equity capital is not its liability.
Assets,or placed funds, They are subdivided according to the objects and areas of investment, which are: cash (national and foreign currency), precious metals and precious stones, loans to various types of borrowers and for various purposes, securities, real estate, material and technical means, etc.
This grouping of assets is the most general. In particular, loans, as money capital, function in various spheres and branches of the national economy and are directed to the formation of various end objects of investment (investments): tangible working capital and fixed capital. At the same time, this grouping reflects the historically established areas of banking investments and is fixed by certain sections of the bank balance sheet.
In the balance sheets of banks, in accordance with the Chart of Accounts of Credit Institutions, adopted in Russian practice, the following is distinguished: composition of banking assets (active operations):
Bank assets have the following properties:
Liquidity assets depends on the state (level of activity) of specific segments of the financial and commodity market. The higher the demand for certain objects of banking investments, the higher the liquidity of the respective assets. In other words, the easier it is to sell these assets, having received "live" money for them. Liquidity also depends on the selling price (i.e. the bank): the higher the selling price of an asset, the more difficult it is to sell, the longer the period of its conversion into cash, and therefore, the liquidity of such an asset will be lower.
All assets can be subdivided according to the level of liquidity:
Thus, highly liquid assets include short and short-term loans issued to reliable solvent borrowers, short-term debt securities of issuers, as well as shares that are in demand and quoted on the organized securities market.
On the contrary, real estate objects, especially buildings and land plots, are classified as low-liquid assets.
The main practical task of each bank is to maintain a high level of liquidity of its assets. Liquidity – basic , the most important principle of formation of banking assets.
Banks create their assets in order to obtain income. Only a small part of the assets is non-profitable. Therefore, assets are divided into profitable and non-profitable.
To earning assets primarily include:
Profitable assets are also precious metals and precious stones, foreign currency, which generate income when their market value increases or in conditions of inflation. (course income).
Among income-earning assets, there are investments that bring interest income. These are loans, debt obligations in the form of securities that bring interest income (bonds, bills, certificates of deposit, etc.).
In world and domestic practice, settlement and cash services, as well as making client payments through the bank's correspondent network, are paid.
Income derived from correspondent account assets is inherently commission income. The amount of this income depends on the scale client base(i.e. on the number of clients served) and on the volume of non-cash and cash turnover of funds. The greater the number of customers and the greater the payment turnover of the bank, the higher the income.
To non-profitable assets include investments in their own material and technical base: office buildings, furniture, computers, various banking and cash equipment. This also includes intangible assets necessary for the operation of the bank: software products, lease rights for buildings and premises, etc. Banks do not receive direct income from these investments, but without them the very activity of banking institutions would be impossible.
By level riskiness(inverse indicator - reliability) all assets are grouped:
In banking practice, there is the following rule: the higher the profitability of an asset, the more risky it is. The high riskiness of investments means their lower reliability, i.e. weak ability to return. High-risk assets include loans. Loan defaults are a fairly common occurrence in banking practice.
There is a sharp differentiation in the level of risk of investments in debt securities, depending on the reliability of the issuer.
Non-profit assets are classified as risk-free.
One of the most important characteristics of assets is their urgency. According to this indicator, they are divided into assets:
Part of the bank's assets acts as its financial requirements. The requirements of the bank include: funds placed on correspondent accounts of the bank in other banks (correspondent accounts in prices
central bank, in the mandatory reserve fund in the central bank, in other banks and non-resident banks); loans issued; investments in debt securities of other issuers; tangible assets leased.
Real estate, other tangible assets owned by the bank, as well as cash balances in the bank's cash desk are not claims of the bank.
For banks major problem in asset and liability management is to ensure compliance in terms between the resources attracted (liabilities) and their placement (assets). In modern banking slang, there are concepts of "short" and "long" liabilities, "short" and "long" assets.
The art of banking management consists in the ability to rationally combine the sources of formation of banking resources in terms of their cost (the cheaper, the better) and in terms of such areas of their placement (i.e., asset formation) that provide a high level of bank liquidity and profitability of its activities , at an acceptable level of risk.
| Author | Definition |
| Lavrushin I.O.56 | Active operations are operations through which banks allocate the resources at their disposal to generate profits and maintain liquidity. |
| Zhukov E.F.57 | Operations on the placement of banking resources are called active. |
| Balabanov I.T.58 | Active operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal for profit. Liquidity, profitability, and, consequently, the financial reliability and stability of the bank as a whole depend on the qualitative implementation of the active operations of the bank. |
| Prodchenko I. A.59 | Active operations of credit institutions are purposeful actions to place (use) own and borrowed funds in order to generate income, maintain liquidity and financial stability. |
| Slepov V.A., Lushin S.I.60 | Active operations are operations for the placement of borrowed and own funds of a commercial bank for the purpose of income and creating conditions for banking operations. |
| Arkhipov A.I.61 | Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use of borrowed funds and own income on its own behalf. |
| Raizberg B.L., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starobudov E.B.62 | The active operations of the bank is the placement by the bank of its financial resources in order to put them into circulation. |
| Author | Classification of active operations |
| Batrakova L.G.63 | Cash operations. A commercial bank at any time and at the first request of the client is obliged to pay him in full or in part the deposits held on demand accounts. In this regard, the cash desk of the bank must always have a certain amount of cash. In addition to cash, banks must keep certain balances in their accounts with the Bank of Russia to ensure daily balancing of clearing settlements with other banks. Such accounts are used by commercial banks for settlements with treasuries for cash banknotes and coins received from them through the Bank of Russia to replenish their cash. Investments in securities. Treasury bills are bills issued by the country's treasury with a term of 91 days, issued into circulation under the guarantee of the government. Bills can be transferred from one depositor to another during the entire period of validity, while their price is calculated based on the number of days remaining until the due date and the interest rate agreed between the parties. The main part of investments of commercial banks falls on the share of government securities, as well as securities of local authorities. credit operations. This group of active operations includes: Loans on demand or with short-term advance notice of the need to repay them. Clientele loans and other accounts. This section includes the main sources of the bank's gross income. The main part of the loans is used to form and replenish the working capital of borrowers, lending to enterprises, organizations, as well as housing construction, etc. Loans to individuals in relatively small amounts are intended mainly to pay consumer goods. These types of loans carry a high degree of risk, so they charge a high interest rate. On average, it is allowed for customer loans to reach 50% of the balances of current, deposit, savings and other customer accounts. Others. These include shares of subsidiaries, affiliated companies and firms, the cost of bank buildings, equipment, etc. |
| Stoyanova | Divides active operations by sensitive assets: |
| E.S.64 | Issued loans to banking clients; Securities purchased by the bank and debt instruments circulating on the market; Issued interbank loans; Purchase by the bank of derivative instruments of the securities market (interest rate futures, options, swap contracts, repos, etc.). |
| Lavrushin O.I.65 | Active operations include: lending operations, as a rule, bring the bulk of the income to banks. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations lies in the fact that, through them, banks turn temporarily inactive monetary funds into active ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption; investment transactions, in the process of their completion, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights for joint economic activities; deposit operations, the purpose of active deposit operations of banks is to create current and long-term reserves of means of payment in accounts with the Central Bank (correspondent account and reserve account) and other commercial banks; other active operations, various in form, bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, etc. Evaluation of the development of the bank's active operations is based on an assessment of the dynamics of the bank's total assets, their individual groups and net and gross assets. At the same time, it is important to compare data for a particular credit institution with average indicators for the entire banking sector, as well as with banks of the same group. Factors in the growth of assets in the banking sector and in individual credit institutions can be both macroeconomic (GDP growth; pricing and interest policy; real economy demand for credit resources; development of the interbank and financial market; increased confidence in banking system, a stable inflow of exports, etc.), and domestic (expanding the scope of lending, intensifying work in the securities market, universalization of banking activities, increasing capital, etc.). Further analysis of volumetric characteristics is to determine the ratio between net and gross assets. Gross assets include: |
| non-income-generating assets: cash; correspondent accounts in other banks; FOR; fixed assets; intangible assets; debtors; funds in settlements; use of budgetary and extrabudgetary funds; capital investment financing; capital expenditures; current expenses; Future expenses; revaluation of foreign currency and securities; diverted funds from profit; losses of the reporting year and previous years; income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans to customers, banks, and the public; arrears on loans and interest; factoring; leasing; securities; issued guarantees. Net assets include: non-income-generating assets: cash; correspondent accounts in other banks; FOR; fixed assets and intangible assets at residual value; debtors in the amount of the excess of creditors; income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans less reserves to cover losses on loans to customers, banks and individuals in rubles and foreign currency; factoring and leasing, less the previously created provision for depreciation of the cost of these operations; securities less provisions for depreciation of securities, promissory notes, frozen liabilities. In the structure of the balance sheet, net assets are reduced by the amount of regulatory, accumulative and transit accounts. The ratio between working and non-performing assets is better determined by net assets already cleared of risk. |
|
| Bukato VI., Lviv Yu.I.66 | The main active operations are: credit operations, as a result of which the bank's loan portfolio is formed; investment operations that form the basis for the formation of an investment portfolio; cash and settlement operations, which are one of the main types of services provided by the bank to its customers; other active operations related to the creation of an appropriate infrastructure that ensures the successful completion of all banking operations. |
| Polyakov V.P., Moskovkina L.A.67 | subdivide active operations into bank investments, granting loans, accounting (purchase) of commercial bills and stock operations. |
| I.A. Prodche 68 NCO | According to the structure and content, operations are divided into loan, investment and other |
| gt; | credit |
| gt; | settlement |
| gt; | cash |
| gt; | investment |
| gt; | warranty |
