2.1. concept economic system.
In each of the branches and spheres of the economy, in the process of human activity, in the process of production, material and spiritual benefits are created. Therefore, the totality of all types economic activity people in the process of their interaction aimed at the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods and services, as well as the regulation of such activities in accordance with the purpose of society is called an ECONOMIC SYSTEM.
The main ELEMENTS of the economic system are:
2.2. Moments of the labor process.
Any production is characterized by the so-called moments of the labor process: WORK as an expedient activity that involves the use of labor skills of people, their physical and mental abilities; OBJECTS OF LABOR v these are objects of human activity (land, raw materials, materials); INSTRUMENTS v machines, machine tools, industrial buildings, infrastructure - bridges, canals, gas pipelines). Together, the objects and means of labor constitute the means of production. 2.3. productive forces and industrial relations.
Thus, in each mode of production there are 2 sides - the productive forces (the totality of the means of production and the people who put them into action) and production relations (the totality of economic relations that arise between people regardless of their desire and will in the process of production, distribution of exchange and consumption of material goods).
2.4. Economic relations.
For economic theory, based on the study of the economy and the classification of its structures, ECONOMIC RELATIONS are of paramount importance. They manifest themselves in 3 approaches: technological and socio-economic.
The TECHNOLOGICAL aspect of the relationship is characterized by the attitude of people towards the use natural resources. TECHNICAL_ECONOMIC RELATIONS are reflected in the social division of labor, cooperation, specialization of production. The interaction of man with nature is manifested specifically in the formation of the productive forces of society.
SOCIAL_ECONOMIC RELATIONS, developing on the basis of technical and economic, are expressed in relations between people. The determining factor in the structure of socio-economic relations is the relationship regarding ownership of the means of production, resources and production results. These relations determine the relations of distribution and consumption of produced goods.
ORGANIZATIONAL - ECONOMIC relations include forms and methods of management, characteristic of all sectors of the economy. Among them today stand out: 1) market system, in the center of which is commodity-money relations, 2) entrepreneurship, in the center of which is effective management of the economy. General organizational and economic relations are relations in the field monetary circulation, pricing, finance and credit, marketing, management, banking, etc.
Socio-economic and organizational-economic relations constitute the RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION, closely connected with the productive forces. The productive forces and production relations in their unity constitute the PUBLIC MODE OF PRODUCTION.
06/10/2016. 3. The subject of economic theory, methods of knowledge. Micro and macroeconomic analysis
3.1. The subject of economic theory. The task of each science is to reveal the essence of those phenomena and processes that it studies. THE SUBJECT of economic theory is the laws of development of economic systems, i.e. ...
06/10/2016. 4. Economic laws and categories. Systematization of economic laws
4.1. Economic laws. If as a result economic analysis managed to find strong causal relationships, then there is reason to talk about the presence of REGULARITIES, i.e. about submission...
Essence of economic relations. Economic and industrial relations. From the previous section it can be seen that property determines the nature of the connection of workers with factors of production. Depending on this, production operates on the basis of private entrepreneurship or on public (collective) principles of management. The union of the worker with the means of production signifies the beginning of the process of production. Production is characterized by two aspects: the interaction of people, economic links of the economy with nature, natural factors and conditions of production, with technology, through which a person influences nature; interaction of people, groups of workers with each other. Both sides of the activity have economic feasibility and quantitative economic expression, therefore they act as economic relations. In the totality of economic relations, relations in the process of production are the main and determining ones, because it is possible to distribute and consume what is created by production. The qualitative side of this activity is the one who owns the means of production as the most important production factor. Private ownership of the means of production predetermines the private property principle of appropriation of the results of labor, while public (state) property leads to the public principle of appropriation and consumption. Let's make a reservation that such an approach does not at all mean a balance in distribution and consumption. The goods created must be available for consumption by all workers, but the income of each must be determined by the cost of his labor. The classics of Marxism drew attention to this side and the importance of production in due time, calling this link of economic relations production. They were given an exceptional role in the social class transformation of society.
Thus, economic and production relations are not unambiguous. In terms of scope and content, economic relations are broader and richer than production relations. If economic relations cover the entire complex of market relations, then production relations are only a socio-economic link in relations of direct production. Even the economic relations of the production sphere are not all covered by production relations. This includes only those aspects of production that are associated with the use of ownership of the means of production.
Economic relations form a very complex system of relations. They can be classified according to the forms of reproduction, then among them there is a group of relations of direct production, distribution relations, exchange relations and consumption relations. If we take into account the levels of development of property, then we should dwell on economic relations public sector economy, private economic relations, small business relations, household economic relations, family relations, etc. It is possible to single out inter- and intra-state economic relations. In turn, intrastate relations include relations between the state and firms, relations between enterprises and institutions, within enterprises, between the state and households, enterprises and households.
Given the scope of human activity, there are economic relations in industry, agriculture, in construction, trade, services, public education, healthcare, culture, etc. Economic relations, finally, exist in time and space.
Socio-economic and organizational-economic relations. Economic relations can be considered both in the broad and in the narrow sense of the word. In a narrow sense, they include relations that characterize the socio-economic type of social production, i.e. answer the question of whether the resources and factors of production are in private or public ownership. When it comes to economic relations in the broad sense of the word, they include organizational and economic relations along with socio-economic ones. They arise in connection with the organization of production and are therefore closely connected with the economic mechanism. Moreover, when we talk about an economic mechanism, we mean a complex of relationships and organizational forms that regulate organizational and economic relations and ensure the use of economic laws and the functioning of the system of economic relations. Activity economic mechanism organizes the state, whereby it regulates and directs economic development.
The improvement of the economic mechanism is inextricably linked with the establishment of a clear and well-coordinated system of organizational and economic relations, the development of which enriches economic relations, multiplies them, causing the improvement of property relations. In turn, the relations of ownership of the means of production give social meaning to economic relations, cementing them into a single system. Property as a system of economic relations is the basis on which economic relations develop.
Economic interests. The concept of "interest" means a person's attitude to a thing, an object as something valuable, attractive to him. Interests are based on the needs of people. The versatility and diversity of human needs give rise to the same diversity of interests. Each aspect of human life has its own range of interests. Interests can be spiritual, moral and ethical, religious, social, professional, ideological, national, economic, etc. Interests are realized through certain motives of activity. A motive is an internal motivation of a person to act. Thus, needs develop interests in people, which in turn form motives for actions.
In the foreground, people have material needs that excite economic interests and economic motives for activity. Since a person realizes his needs not alone, but together, collectively, along with personal interests, collective interests arise. The highest form of expression of collective interests are public interests. As a rule, the public interest is limited to the framework of national statehood. Thus, if we take into account the scale of the manifestation of interests, then there are personal, collective and public interests.
Economic interests are closely connected with economic relations, and through them with property relations. Moreover, it should be noted that economic relations are manifested exclusively through the economic interests of people. People live and work together. Bees also live collectively and work in a team, but there are economic relations among people, while bees do not have them, since they perform their labor operations instinctively, and people realize their economic interest through labor.
The transition to the market demanded not only the reform of property and economic relations, but also a new assessment of economic interests. The interest of the owner is now developing rapidly. Under the former command-administrative system with its egalitarian principles of distribution, the interest of the owner among people was muffled, the object of property of the worker was not interested, because it was common, and in the end - no one's. Problems of privatization, corporatization state property aroused interest in private property, and hence in entrepreneurial initiative.
Interest groups that exist in society are not adequate to each other, they are contradictory: personal interests do not always agree with collective interests, and collective interests do not always agree with public ones. These differences are based on a different set of needs to be met. Therefore, the state creates a mechanism for the implementation of economic interests. The means of realization of interests are economic material incentives. If a motive is an internal state of a person, her internal motivation for action, then a stimulus is an external motivating factor. Incentives can take the form wages, bonuses, one-time rewards, tax breaks, differences in pension provision, etc. On this basis, a system of material interest is formed in society. Along with it, a system of moral and administrative incentives usually operates.
The vital activity of society is based on economic, political, legal, social, ethical and other relations that arise between people. Economics studies the economic relations of human society that arise between individuals, collectives, parties, and countries. Economic relations- certain connections and relations, which, regardless of the will and consciousness, people enter in the process of social production. In economic relations, one should distinguish between production, socio-economic (property) and organizational-economic relations.
Socio-economic relations are formed between social classes, social groups, individual collectives and members of society. The decisive role in these relations is played by the ownership of the means of production.
Organizational and economic relations arise because social production, distribution and exchange are impossible without a definite organization. Organizational and economic relations, reflecting the forms of organizational ties, accompany any joint activity of employees. This, for example, the division of labor, its specialization and cooperation. Social division of labor- separation of certain types of labor activity. The first stage in the social division of labor was the separation of cattle breeding from agriculture. A prerequisite for the social division of labor is the presence of a certain quantity and quality of economic resources and the features of their combination, ensuring greater or lesser efficiency in the use of these resources. Division of labor in conditions modern production requires a narrow specialization of workers in individual production operations. Specialization- a form of division of labor in which an economic entity concentrates its production efforts on one or a limited number of activities. The reverse side of the social division of labor is its cooperation. labor cooperation- based on the division of labor, a stable exchange between economic entities of products produced by them with the greatest economic efficiency.
Production relations form the basis of the economic organization of society. Relations of production- the interaction of people with each other in the process of their economic activity. Production is the basis of the economy, the basis of the existence of the entire human society. Considering production as a process, economic theory distinguishes the following stages in it: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Production- the creation of a product necessary for the existence and development of man. It is clear that before something can be distributed, exchanged and consumed, this “something” must be produced. Distribution- determination of the share and volume of the product supplied to the consumption of economic activity participants. Distinguish between distribution in the narrow sense (distribution of the product) and in the broad sense (distribution of conditions and factors of production). Distribution in a broad sense relies on the division of labor and the allocation of economic resources on different types economic activity. Distribution in the narrow sense involves determining the share of each participant in economic relations in the wealth created. The size of the share depends on the ownership and on the volume of production. Exchange- the stage of movement of the social product, at which the produced products are delivered to the subjects of economic activity. Since production is carried out on the basis of the division of labor and specialization, the exchange becomes a way of obtaining the necessary products by transferring the results of one's labor for them. Money is the intermediary in this exchange. Consumption- the process of using the results of production to meet needs. This is the final stage of the product movement. As a result of consumption, the created goods disappear, after which they should be re-produced, that is, reproduced. According to the goals, consumption is divided into personal, that is, aimed at satisfying the individual needs of people, and production, aimed at using the product to renew and expand the process of production of material goods.
It should be noted that production is a social process, since it is carried out not by isolated economic entities, but by society. Moreover, production is a continuous process. Society cannot stop consuming, which means that a constant repetition of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, or reproduction, is inevitable. Moreover, all four phases are implemented simultaneously. The continuity of the production process and its repetition characterize social reproduction. social reproduction- constantly repeating in society the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services. schematically reproductive process shown in the figure.
Social reproduction can be carried out in simple, extended and narrowed versions. simple reproduction takes place in the event that the volumes of output are unchanged during each turnover. It is assumed that both the quantity and quality of economic resources used in the process of social production do not change. Extended reproduction assumes that the volume of material goods produced is constantly growing, increasing year by year. The condition for expanded reproduction is an increase in the quantity and quality of economic resources. Constricted reproduction represents a reduction in production at each next stage of the process of social reproduction.
Constantly and simultaneously enters into many economic relations. We can talk about sustainable economic relations when economic agents enter into them periodically.
Voluntary economic relations are usually entered into on the basis of profit motives. Such relationships can be secured by contracts.
The motive of profit or economic egoism is an objective desire for economic benefits inherent in every economic agent. Such egoism, in fact, is the same psychological egoism, but only concretizes the material nature of desire.
As the basis of trade (exchange), this term was first introduced by the classic of political economy Adam Smith, who in his book “A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776) wrote: “... give me what I need and I will give what you need ... ". Mutual exchange and mutual benefit - the result, the motivational cause of which is precisely the desire to make this exchange and receive the alleged benefit.
American researchers R. Stroup and D. Gwartney in their book "The ABC of Economics" indicate that a market economy is an economy of motives and the management of such an economy, respectively, implies a targeted influence on the motives of economic agents.
In free economic society the positive consequences of the manifestation of economic selfishness (free trade and competition, private property) can be offset by negative ones ( uneven distribution national economic income, growing social inequality and tension).
Economic relations on a social basis are divided into:
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3. Economic relations
The vital activity of society is based on economic, political, legal, social, ethical and other relations that arise between people. Economics studies the economic relations of human society that arise between individuals, collectives, parties, and countries. Economic relations are certain connections and relations that people enter into in the process of social production, regardless of their will and consciousness. In economic relations, one should distinguish between production, socio-economic (property) and organizational-economic relations.
Socio-economic relations develop between social classes, social groups, individual collectives and members of society. The decisive role in these relations is played by the ownership of the means of production.
Organizational-economic relations arise because social production, distribution and exchange are impossible without a definite organization. Organizational and economic relations, reflecting the forms of organizational ties, accompany any joint activity of employees. This, for example, the division of labor, its specialization and cooperation. The social division of labor is the separation of certain types of labor activity. The first stage in the social division of labor was the separation of cattle breeding from agriculture. A prerequisite for the social division of labor is the presence of a certain quantity and quality of economic resources and the features of their combination, ensuring greater or lesser efficiency in the use of these resources. The division of labor in the conditions of modern production requires a narrow specialization of workers in individual production operations. Specialization is a form of division of labor in which an economic entity concentrates its production efforts on one or a limited number of activities. The reverse side of the social division of labor is its cooperation. Cooperation of labor is a stable exchange between economic entities of products produced by them with the greatest economic efficiency, based on the division of labor.
Industrial relations form the basis of the economic organization of society. Industrial relations are the interaction of people with each other in the course of their economic activity. Production is the basis of the economy, the basis of the existence of the entire human society. Considering production as a process, economic theory distinguishes the following stages in it: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Production - the creation of a product necessary for the existence and development of man. It is clear that before something can be distributed, exchanged and consumed, this “something” must be produced. Distribution - determination of the share and volume of the product that enters the consumption of participants in economic activity. Distinguish between distribution in the narrow sense (distribution of the product) and in the broad sense (distribution of conditions and factors of production). Distribution in a broad sense is based on the division of labor and the distribution of economic resources among different types of economic activity. Distribution in the narrow sense involves determining the share of each participant in economic relations in the wealth created. The size of the share depends on the ownership and on the volume of production. Exchange - the stage of the movement of a social product, at which the produced products are delivered to the subjects of economic activity. Since production is carried out on the basis of the division of labor and specialization, the exchange becomes a way of obtaining the necessary products by transferring the results of one's labor for them. Money is the intermediary in this exchange. Consumption - the process of using the results of production to meet needs. This is the final stage of the product movement. As a result of consumption, the created goods disappear, after which they should be re-produced, that is, reproduced. According to the goals, consumption is divided into personal, that is, aimed at satisfying the individual needs of people, and production, aimed at using the product to renew and expand the process of production of material goods.
It should be noted that production is a social process, since it is carried out not by isolated economic entities, but by society. Moreover, production is a continuous process. Society cannot stop consuming, which means that a constant repetition of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, or reproduction, is inevitable. Moreover, all four phases are implemented simultaneously. The continuity of the production process and its repetition characterize social reproduction. Social reproduction is a process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services that is constantly repeated in society. Schematically, the reproductive process is shown in the figure.
Social reproduction can be carried out in simple, extended and narrowed versions. Simple reproduction takes place if the volume of output is unchanged during each turnover. It is assumed that both the quantity and quality of economic resources used in the process of social production do not change. Expanded reproduction assumes that the volume of material goods produced is constantly growing, increasing year by year. The condition for expanded reproduction is an increase in the quantity and quality of economic resources. Narrowed reproduction is a reduction in production volumes at each next stage of the process of social reproduction.
Economic relations- objectively developing relations between people in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods.
Usually, each economic agent constantly and simultaneously enters into many economic relations. We can talk about sustainable economic relations when economic agents enter into them periodically.
Voluntary economic relations are usually entered into on the basis of profit motives. Such relationships can be secured by contracts.
The motive of profit or economic egoism is an objective desire for economic benefits inherent in every economic agent. Such egoism, in fact, is the same psychological egoism, but only concretizes the material nature of desire.
As the basis of trade (exchange), this term was first introduced by the classic of political economy Adam Smith, who in his book “A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776) wrote: “... give me what I need and I will give what you need ... ". Mutual exchange and mutual benefit - the result, the motivational cause of which is precisely the desire to make this exchange and receive the alleged benefit.
American researchers R. Stroup and D. Gwartney in their book "The ABC of Economics" indicate that a market economy is an economy of motives and the management of such an economy, respectively, implies a targeted influence on the motives of economic agents.
In a free economic society, the positive consequences of the manifestation of economic selfishness (free trade and competition, private property) can be offset by negative ones (unequal distribution of national economic income, growing social inequality and tension).
Classification of economic relations
Economic relations on a social basis are divided into:
1. socio-economic relations or industrial relations;
2. technical and economic relations;
3. organizational and economic;
4. Economic systems.
4. 8. Types of economic systems
Economics questions for the exam
Socio-economic systems
This is a way of organizing social production.
1.Traditional economy - based on manual labor (weakly the developed countries);
2. Command and administrative system (USSR, North Korea). Present in all countries (when managed economy):
A) state type (ownership of the means of production);
B) universal (the role of the state);
3. Market economy:
A) private ownership of the means of production
B) the role of the state is minimal.
It is based on prices, demand, supply, competition.
In a purely market economy, the problem is what to produce? as? and for whom to produce?, the regulation of the distribution of resources is carried out on the basis of the interaction of producers and consumers, sellers and buyers in accordance with supply and demand.
4.Mixed economy:
A) property - public and private;
B) the state limited framework (autopilot), the regulatory role of the state. Market economy + planned economy. Market mechanism of regulation with state regulation.
Most countries have a mixed economy.
5. Social economy. Human protection, convergence of living standards, reduction of income differentiation.
Models market economy:
1. Entrepreneurial model (USA), 2. Social (Swedish model), 3. Japanese model - the priority of national interests.
5. The development of theory from ancient origins to the first classics.
We find the origins of economic theory in the teachings of the thinkers of the countries of the Ancient East - the ancient Indian Laws of Manu (IV-III centuries BC). In the writings of ancient Chinese thinkers, among whom Confucius (551-479 BC) stood out.
The views of ancient Greek thinkers (Xenophon (444-357 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC)) - initial points of economic science.
Christianity declared simple economic labor to be a necessary and holy deed. As a science, economic theory arose in the XVI-XVII centuries. with the advent of mercantilism. The essence of the teachings of the mercantilists is to determine the source of the origin of wealth. They removed the source of wealth from the sphere of circulation, and identified wealth itself with money.
The most famous representatives of mercantilism were Thomas Mann (1571-1641), Antoine Montcretien de Watteville (1575-1621) and others.
The teachings of William Petty (1623-1687) serve as a transitional bridge from the mercantilists to the classical (genuine) science - political economy. His main work is A Treatise on Taxes and Duties (1662). The merit of W. Petty is that he first declared labor and land to be the source of wealth.
A separate direction in the development of political economy is represented by physiocrats. The main representative and founder of this trend was Francois Quesnay (1694-1774).
Adam Smith (1723-1790) entered the history of economic thought as the founder of classical political economy. The main work is "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1777). The main idea in the teachings of A. Smith is the idea of liberalism, minimal state intervention in the economy, market self-regulation based on free prices. He called market regulators the "invisible hand".
David Ricardo (1772-1823) continued to develop the theory of A. Smith. His main work is "The Principles of Political Economy and taxation"(1809-1817).
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) created a theoretical concept called Marxism. Their ideas were supplemented and somewhat revised by V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). Marxism or the theory of scientific socialism (communism) , - a direction represented by a set of socialist principles, such as public ownership of the means of production, equal pay for equal work, general and full employment, etc. The main work of K. Marx is Capital (1867).
In the future, two more directions were formed: marginalism and modern economic thought.
Marginalism (from English - “marginal”) is a direction that proceeded from the idea of using limiting, extreme values.
The main directions of modern economic thought include:
1) neoclassical;
2) Keynesian;
3) institutional and sociological.
6. Classical Nobel Prize winners of the 20th and 21st centuries.
New Classics and Nobel Prize Winners
A significant contribution to the development of Russian economic thought and the practice of reforming the economy was made by Count, Minister of Finance Ser. Yul. Witte, who created an extensive program for the industrialization of the country, as well as prime ministers Russian Empire, Count Vl. Nick. Kokovtsev and Petr Ark. Stolypin, the inspirer of the agrarian reform of 1907-1911
Significant footprint in the Russian economics early 20th century left the scientist - encyclopedist M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, Nick. Dm. Kondratiev, who developed the theory economic cycles; state figure of the Soviet period Sokolnikov, who carried out the monetary reform of 1922-24; politician, scientist, theorist-economist Bukharin, Chayanov - a representative of the organizational and production direction in Russian economic thought and theorist of the family and peasant economy.
In the modern period of restructuring the Russian economy, such economists as G. Yavlinsky, R. Khazbulatov, E. Gaidar, Pavel Bunich and others have become extremely popular.
Scientists - economists of Russian origin Leontiev, Simon S. Kuznets and Soviet mathematician economist Kantorovich are named Nobel Prize winners in economics.
7. Economic science of the beginning of the XXI century: methods of economic theory.
By the beginning of the XXI century. economic knowledge formed a large and complex system of economic sciences. In this system, the general economic theory, functional and sectoral economic sciences interact and develop. This differentiation has led to a new place and content of economic theory. On the one hand, its elements began to develop into functional and branch sciences On the other hand, this allowed us to take a fresh look at the immanent - internal - subject, tasks and structure of economic theory itself. It finally gets rid of ideologized and politicized accretions alien to it, narrow-class and sectoral approaches and views.
The main phenomenon of economic science at the beginning of the XXI century. became the design, including organizational and methodological, of the global community of scientists and a single economic education. This is manifested in regular meetings, scientific conferences, symposiums, joint research by scientists and specialists from different countries, in teaching students according to uniform programs, standards and textbooks.
Globalization and consolidation of economic science does not mean the absence of different opinions and points of view. However, it should be borne in mind that the boundaries between the directions of economic theory are mobile and conditional.
The main modern directions in the development of economic theory
1.1 New information economy
Information economy is a term used to refer to two concepts. Firstly, the information economy is the current stage in the development of civilization, which is characterized by the predominant role of creative labor and information products. Secondly, the information economy is the economic theory of the information society.
The development of the information economy is due to the increasing role of those activities that are associated with the production of information products and services, as well as the transfer of transactions to electronic form.
In general, the following stages of the formation of the information economy can be distinguished, which can be analyzed in five aspects: technological, economic, social, spatial and state:
1. Penetration of information technologies into production. From the point of view of the technological aspect, new information technologies are spreading in the field of equipment, communications, but one cannot speak of their predominance. The share of information production and information technology production in the country's economy is insignificant. The number of workers in the field of information work is insignificant. Geographic factor plays an important role, since the communication system is not yet developed. Informatization of state and municipal authorities is chaotic, almost all operations are not automated.
At this stage, active public policy in the field of information technology, because you can stay in this position for a long time. Restraining factors are the lack of sufficient infrastructure for development, information culture and education of the population. Applied to Russian Federation at this stage, we can say that the current system government controlled and the economy hinders the formation of the information society, since the working conditions of enterprises and authorities are such that the need for informatization fades into the background.
2. Mass introduction of information technologies and the predominance of standardized systems. The information infrastructure has already been practically formed, the emphasis is on the creation and implementation of standard information systems. The share of the information sector in the economy is increasing, the share of information costs in the cost of production is growing. The number of people employed in the field of work with information is growing, and the need for highly qualified personnel is growing. The communication system is developing, but although there is some overcoming of information inequality, for many territories the issues of distance are still relevant. There are concepts of informatization of state and municipal authorities, the latter are integrated into the worldwide network, there are typical concepts of informatization of activities.
Here there is a problem in personnel, or a shortage human capital, as the need for specialists in the field of information technology is sharply increasing, and at the same time the need for low-skilled workers is decreasing. Retraining and training of the necessary personnel takes a rather long period of time, and the lack of the latter becomes one of the main constraints to the development of the information economy. Moreover, there is a threat more difference in the levels of informatization of the center and the periphery, or the increase in information inequality, especially when it comes to rural areas.
3. The excess of productivity in the production of information and information technology over other industries. Information technologies for the production of information and knowledge are beginning to play an important role. Communication technologies come first. The share of the information sector in the economy is increasing, the share of information costs in the cost of production is practically compared with other cost items. The number of people employed in the field of work with information exceeds 50% of the total number of able-bodied population. Distance issues play little role, since the vast majority of transactions take place in in electronic format. E-government appears, typical information systems prevail in government, most transactions occur through the network.
The problem may be the reassessment of the role of information technology. It is necessary to soberly assess their role in the life of society at this stage.
4. Transition to the predominant production of information and knowledge. The fundamental sciences and technologies for the production of scientific knowledge begin to play the greatest role. The information sector begins to dominate the economy, products are becoming more knowledge-intensive. The number of people employed in the field of information production is becoming overwhelming. A large proportion of the employed are professionals working at home. Distance issues practically do not play a role, since the vast majority of transactions occur in electronic form, the information inequality on a geographical basis almost completely disappears. The e-government system becomes comprehensive, almost all transactions occur through the network.
AT modern world the developed countries are only approaching this stage. It gives rise to new problems, in particular, interference with the personal freedom of citizens, Internet crime, the possibility of influencing huge masses of people through new technologies, the growth of the power of the state, corporations that own a monopoly on certain types of information resources.
1.2 New institutional economics
The New Institutional Economics Theory (NIE) is one of the most promising directions economic science, formed in the second half of the 20th and early 21st centuries. For several decades, this theory has shown its productivity, both in methodological issues and issues of applied importance not only in the field of state and cooperative management, in particular in resolving disputes between business entities, but also in many other areas of public life. The term "new institutional economics" (new institutional economics) was first introduced by O. Williamson in 1975.
The language of models of the new institutional economy was formulated by game theory (J. von Neumann, O. Morgenstern, J. Nash). D. North draws attention to the bilateral nature of the interaction of institutions and the process of perception by individuals of their own interests. Institutions set the limits of perception, but at the same time, they can influence these limits. The program of the new institutional economy is given in the works of representatives of the economy of agreements (L. Thevenot, O. Favreau, A. Orleans, R. Boyer), in the center of the analysis of which are agreements as the most general framework for interaction between individuals.
When discussing the methodological issues of the NIE, it is advisable to rely on the classification of program development factors proposed by Williamson and detailed by K. Menard:
(1) basic concepts (concepts) and questions,
(2) analytical approaches,
(3) a set of models - tools with which forecasts are constructed,
(4) empirical verification of the hypotheses formulated at the model level, their quantitative assessment (measurement).
The fundamental thesis of the NIE:
(1) institutions matter,
(2) the institutions under investigation (2) found confirmation not only on a global scale, but also on a local level.
1.3 Network economy
The network economy is an economy associated with the production and distribution of network goods. What are the benefits of the network?
Network goods are goods that have the following properties:
Complementarity, compatibility and standardization;
Significant economies of scale in production;
Network externalities;
Trap effects.
Complementarity means that consumers in the markets of network goods purchase a good that can only be used in conjunction with other goods: computers are consumed together with monitors, and film is consumed together with a camera. Thus, consumers buy not just individual goods, but parts of the system, the network. From a technical point of view, complementarity means compatibility, and compatibility requires that such goods work on the same standard.
The cost structure of network goods differs from the structure of costs of ordinary goods: the main part of the costs falls on the initial period of their production, and subsequent copying costs negligible compared to the initial costs, which implies that the costs of making the first copy are disproportionately high in relation to the costs of subsequent copies. , and it is possible to reduce marginal costs as a result of the existing economies of scale effect (for example, writing a book and then transferring the product electronically using PDF file). Traditional economic theory proceeds from the operation of the law of diminishing returns, on the basis of which many concepts and processes in economics are explained and studied. However, network goods do not obey this law, or at least show increasing returns in the very long run.
Accordingly, industries engaged in the production of network goods receive huge opportunities to exploit economies of scale.
We should pay attention to one more feature of network goods: the emergence of a phenomenon that is close in essence to the effect of economies of scale in production - the spread of network externalities when we meet with increasing profitability for consumers: each additional user of a network good increases utility for other individuals.
With regard to network goods, the so-called trap effects (lock-in effects) operate - these are the effects of moving costs from one industry to another, which is associated with the technological interdependence of industries.
Trapping effects eventually lead to the fact that the process of technological development is not as linear as one might think. At the global level, there is a possibility of the emergence of so-called institutional traps, that is, inefficient, stable norms that become self-sustaining.
Most economists believe that in the XXI century. there will be radical changes not only in the way people exchange information, but also in the nature of their economic activities.
Due to the high share of the information component in the cost of goods and services, the processes of studying their specific consumers and their reproduction, the transformation of their own organization to suit their interests and requests, become important for the manufacturer. At the same time, for the consumer in these conditions, it is important to know the producers who are able to produce the value that best satisfies his specific needs, and therefore are ready to adapt to it. However, any additional information about the situation on the markets requires ever-increasing costs. In order to reduce the cost of search operations, business entities (entrepreneurs, specialists, investors, consumers, suppliers, etc.) connect to information systems different levels; at the global level, that is the Internet. As a result, it becomes possible at lower cost to analyze the effectiveness of applied economic decisions in various industries and regions, up to global ones. The concept of the network economy arose in the context of the use of various information networks. It is possible, as a first approximation, to classify information networks according to the level of integration as follows:
Corporate networks (intranet);
Business partnership networks (extranet);
Global networks (for example, the Internet).
Each level of integration predetermines quite specific restrictions for access to the information space. If in global networks there are practically no such restrictions, then in corporate networks and networks of business partnerships they are clearly present and are consistent exclusively with the interests of corporate users or members of partner associations.
It is important to keep this in mind when using the information resources of networks in the so-called "network economy", which can be determined by the formula:
network economy = traditional economy + informational resources and technology
Networks should provide:
Availability of the required information at any time;
Ability to analyze and evaluate the information received;
Appearance of the right buyer.
The following trends in the development of the network economy can be noted:
Individual approach to a qualified buyer;
The emergence of global competition, in which the place of production, brand awareness, established relationships, etc. do not matter, but quality, level of service, etc. are important;
Availability of information intermediaries;
Reducing the cost of transactions, the cost of marketing and advertising, communications, and ultimately the price of the product;
Changing the structure of existing enterprises and companies;
Automation of business processes.
In a report prepared by the European Commission in 1997, the networked economy is defined as “an environment in which any company or individual, located anywhere in the economic system, can communicate easily and at minimal cost using Internet technologies with any other company or individual to work together, to trade, to exchange ideas and know-how, or just for fun.” The concept of the network economy is associated with the creation and modernization of software, computer chips, mobile communications, etc., in general, those types of human activities that relate to technical progress in the field of information technology.
At present, the network economy is closely adjacent to those areas of the economy, the efficiency of which depends significantly on the degree of use of information technologies in production processes. These include virtual enterprises, e-commerce, banking, Remote education and etc.
8. Market and market mechanism.
8. Market and market mechanism
The market is a way of interaction between producers and consumers, which is based on a decentralized mechanism of price signals.
Market participants are entrepreneurs, end consumers, workers who sell their labor, property owners, etc.
There are three groups of market economy entities: households, businesses (entrepreneurs) and the government.
Household- a structural unit consisting of one or more people and operating in the consumer sector. Households consume the final products (goods) of the sphere of material and non-material production.
Households are owners and suppliers of factors of production. Income received from the sale of labor services, capital and other factors of production is used to meet personal needs.
A business is a business that operates for the purpose of generating income. Organization of a business involves the investment of own or borrowed capital, the income from which is used to expand production activities. Business is a supplier of goods and services in the country's economy.
Government is different budget organizations and institutions whose function is state regulation economy.
There are basic conditions for the emergence of the market.
1. Social division of labor and specialization. The social division of labor means that in any modern society no individual can live on complete self-sufficiency. Separate types economic activity, which are engaged in by various groups of entrepreneurs, reflect the essence of specialization in the production of certain goods and services.
The defining moment of specialization is the principle of comparative advantage. The essence of the principle lies in the ability to produce products at a relatively lower opportunity cost due to the differences of entrepreneurs in skills, abilities, availability of resources, etc.
2. Economic isolation, or economic autonomy of market entities. Benefits are exchanged by completely independent, independent producers. Economic isolation is best expressed by private property.
3. Free exchange of resources. Free exchange allows the formation of free prices, which are signals to business entities that determine the direction of their activities.
The market mechanism is a mechanism for the interconnection and interaction of the main elements of the market, as well as its most important economic laws.
The market mechanism is based on three main elements.
1. Prices. In the market, the change in relative prices is a guide for the producer, helping to determine in which direction to change the volume of production. Price fluctuations influence the choice of production technology. Prices determine the characteristics of consumers and the volume of sales of a given product in the market.
2. Supply and demand.
Demand (solvent) is the need for goods, supported by solvency economic entities who are ready to buy them in a certain quantity at prevailing prices and cash income consumers.
Supply is the quantity of goods on sale at a given price.
A change in the relationship between supply and demand causes market prices to fluctuate around the equilibrium price. The equilibrium price is the price at which demand equals supply. Price fluctuations determine the price level at which supply and demand are in equilibrium.
3. Competition. The goal of any enterprise - profit maximization - can be achieved by expanding production, economic activity. This is the basis of competition for new sales markets, for the most profitable terms production, which allow to increase production volumes, and, consequently, profits. The nature of competition can be different, which significantly affects the way to achieve market equilibrium.
In conditions of free, or perfect, competition, the market mechanism operates most efficiently.
9. Consumer preferences and marginal utility.
9. Consumer preferences and marginal utility
Consumer preferences are likes and dislikes for products. They are based on utility evaluation.
Utility is the ability of a given product to satisfy needs.
