If we consider the political or economic maps of the world, we can trace one significant pattern in the placement of countries with indicators economic development above the average. These countries create several groups whose territories are closely located. And this is not just an interesting geographical fact, but an important regularity in the geography of the modern world economy.
Industry is the most important branch of the production sphere. And although in the era of scientific and technological revolution specific gravity industry in the structure of employment has decreased due to the non-manufacturing sector, this speaks more about the success of automation and robotization of industrial production.
Conventionally, the industry is divided into extractive and manufacturing industries. The share of these industries in the country's economy indicates the level of its economic development. The more developed the country's economy, the more manufacturing industries are represented there. Today, about $80\%$ of manufacturing output comes from countries with high level development – Japan, USA, countries Western Europe. The share of extractive industries in their economy is insignificant (up to $6\%$). Role developing countries in the development of industry is gradually increasing. And in some modern industries, some developing countries have taken a leading position (countries of new industrialization).
In the structure of manufacturing industries, the chemical industry, mechanical engineering, electric power industry, and non-ferrous metallurgy play a dominant role. Each of these industries is characterized by its own peculiarities of location and development. Let's consider these questions in more detail.
Definition 1
Energy - a complex set of interrelated industries that provide the extraction and processing of energy resources, the generation and transmission of electricity.
The power industry includes the fuel industry and the electric power industry. Significant changes have taken place in the structure of the fuel industry in recent years. Instead of coal, they began to use oil and gas more widely.
Today the oil industry is developed in $75$ countries of the world. Thanks to oil resources, the Middle East has become the world's main fuel and energy base. Most high performance oil production from Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, UAE, Kuwait.
The Middle East fields provide about $30\%$ of world oil production. $20\%$ of oil is produced by the countries of North America. Venezuela is the leading oil-producing country in South America. In Europe, the UK and Norway are producing oil offshore the North Sea. Offshore oil fields are also being developed by Denmark, Spain, and the Netherlands. Among the CIS countries, Russia, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have high oil production rates.
The oil refining industry is concentrated in the economically developed countries of the world.
The role of the gas industry is growing. Gas is not only a fuel, but also a valuable chemical raw material. The main gas producing countries of the world are:
Remark 1
The electric power industry is one of the leading branches of scientific and technological revolution. In the production and consumption of electricity, the developed countries of the world stand out. Among them are the USA, China, Japan, Germany, Canada, France, Russia, Great Britain. Most of the electricity is produced at thermal power plants ($75\%$). Hydroelectric power stations are being built in areas with turbulent rivers - in Northern Europe, South America. Today, hydroelectric power plants provide about $17\%$ of electricity. The role of nuclear power plants has increased. Now they produce almost $7\%$ of the world's electricity. Here France, Belgium, Sweden are in the lead. They also use non-traditional energy sources - the Sun, wind, internal energy of the Earth.
The mining industry is located in places of concentration of industrial stocks of raw materials. China, Australia, Brazil, Sweden, Ukraine, Canada, Russia, USA, Kazakhstan famous for its iron ore deposits. Famous for copper ores Chile, USA Canada. The same countries are leaders in the world non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy based on imported raw materials is developed in Japan. Recently, powder metallurgy has been intensively developing in developed countries.
The world engineering industry consists of approximately $70$ industries and provides $37%$ of the value of world industrial production. At present, the percentage of science-intensive branches of engineering is increasing. Conventionally, the machine-building complex is divided into general machine building, precision and transport.
Today, three main world centers of mechanical engineering are distinguished on the economic map of the world: North America, Western Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia.
The chemical industry is also considered one of the leading branches of scientific and technological revolution. Today, more than $400 thousand chemicals are used in the world. They often displace natural materials from consumption and production. The success of the chemical industry is facilitated by the fact that it has a wide raw material base.
Traditionally, Western Europe remains the leading region for the development of the chemical industry. The countries of this region account for about $40\%$ of world chemical production. Germany, Italy and France are the leaders here. The traditional production of basic chemistry is based on its own raw materials, while the chemistry of organic synthesis is oriented towards imported raw materials.
The US chemical industry, which is developing on the basis of ferrous metallurgy waste from the Lake District and oil from the South. In terms of volume, it is not inferior to European production. And the products of the chemical industry are widely used by the population, both in production and in everyday life.
In the countries of East and Southeast Asia (Japan, China, countries of "new industrialization"), the chemistry of organic synthesis based on imported (with the exception of China and Indonesia) raw materials is rapidly developing.
In the forest zone there are countries such as the USA, Canada, Russia, the countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Brazil. It is there that the largest centers for the timber, woodworking and pulp and paper industries are located. Enterprises tend to sources of raw materials, water and to the consumer.
Remark 2
The light industry is considered one of the oldest branches of the world economy. Its sub-sectors are the textile, clothing, fur, footwear and leather goods industries.
The main fabric producers are the USA, China, India, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina.
The clothing industry is developed in Italy, France, India, and South Korea.
Paris, Vienna and New York are considered the centers of world fashion.
Recently, in the geography of light industry, there has been a gradual shift towards developing countries.
world economy is a global economy that includes the value of all goods and services provided. The latter is usually measured in US dollars for ease of comparison of national indicators. Concepts such as international and world economy are often used as synonymous terms. However, in the specialized literature it is customary to separate them. The international economy as a term is used in contrast to the national economy, while the world economy is the totality of the production of all countries.
World economic economy it is customary to evaluate in money even in cases where it is difficult to do so. For example, drugs and other goods sold on the black market are often not counted. The world economy system is characterized by the following features:
The world economy began to take shape a very long time ago, but was finally formed only at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Huge contribution great geographical discoveries, the emergence of modern vehicles and the deepening of market relations have contributed to this. The Peace of Westphalia, with the recognition of the sovereignty of states, laid the foundation for the existence of the world as a system. At this time, exploration and capture of new lands is completed. The branches of the world economy were then much less diverse than they are now. The structure was also different. Agriculture dominated, in industry - such branches of the world economy as coal mining, ferrous metallurgy, simple engineering. In those distant times, transnational companies were few in number, international organizations and integration associations practically did not exist. However, the world was in many ways much more liberal than it is now. It existed on a political and economic basis.
In scientific literature and in everyday life, such concepts as "world economy" and "international economy" are increasingly used, but there is still no common understanding of their essence. This is due to the fact that they are characterized by the multiplicity of their constituent elements, multilevelness and hierarchy. The structure of the world economy includes the following components:
The role of the world economy in the functioning of individual national economies is increasing more and more. This is the reason for the increased interest in its study. It is customary to single out the sectoral, functional and territorial structure of the world economy. The first characterizes the relationship between the various divisions of the economy. There are several distinct areas. Primary industries include mining and agriculture. To the secondary - manufacturing. The tertiary sphere includes transport, communications and services. Quaternary - management, education, science and culture. All of them are closely interconnected. However, the trend is towards a gradual decrease in the importance of the primary and secondary spheres and an increase in the tertiary and quaternary.
The functional structure of the world economy reflects the international aspect of the division of labor. Each state fulfills its role, specializing in a particular production. However, the geography of the world economy shows that the “lower floors” (mining of metal ores, growing crops) are occupied by developing countries. And they are always trying to win a place "higher".
The territorial structure reflects the correlation in the nature of the placement of states in the "Center - Periphery" system, as well as in areas of specialization. For all sections, it is expressed in natural and cost terms. Using these indicators, you can characterize the main types of proportions:
All countries of the world are divided into three large groups in accordance with their socio-economic development. The first includes states that are members of the OECD. The second includes countries that were formed after the collapse of the USSR. They are called states transition economy. Developing countries, in turn, include four subspecies: new industrial, "rich islands", oil exporters, the weakest. The criteria for classifying states by spheres of the world economy is the nature of their economy (market or transitional) and socio-economic level. The indicators of the latter are:
The modern world economy is a dialectical struggle of unity and opposites. One of the main contradictions in the development of human society is the difference in interests. On the one hand, we have the social character of production. On the other hand, the privately owned form of appropriation of its results. In addition, the formation of the world economy takes place in a constant struggle between countries for the number of storeys. Scientific and technological progress not only does not reduce the sharpness of this contradiction, but, on the contrary, strengthens it. Therefore, the gap between the levels of socio-economic development is only increasing. The functioning of the world economy is influenced by a number of laws: cost, international competition, uneven growth, internationalization of production.
The main principles are the following:
The level of development of the world economy, the proportions of its sectoral, functional and territorial structure can be expressed in kind and in value terms. Since the 1950s, the most important indicators are the gross domestic and national product. GDP is the total value of goods and services that are produced in a year in a particular country or region. When calculating this indicator, the nationality of the subjects is not important. GNP is the total value of goods and services produced in a year by legal and individuals registered in the state. When calculating this indicator, nationality is important, and the territorial location of subjects is not taken into account. If there are many foreign enterprises and workers in the country, then the GDP will be greater than the GNP.
An important indicator of the functioning and levels of development of the world economy is the structure of gross domestic product and employment. It gives an idea of the levels of labor productivity in the sectors of the economy in various regions and in the world as a whole. Thus, the group of the most developed countries is singled out. According to the share of employment in agriculture, all countries are divided into four categories.
Human society has gone through several stages in its development. According to Marxist dialectics, these are historical social formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Each of them corresponds to a certain level of development of the productive forces and social relations. There is also a civilizational approach. According to him, individual elements of the world economy began to take shape as early as the time of the Roman Empire. It received a significant impetus in the era of great geographical discoveries. There are three stages in the development of the world economy. The pre-industrial stage lasted more than three thousand years. At that time, manual labor dominated. The vast majority of the population was employed in agriculture. The standard of living of most ordinary people in this period is extremely low. Wealth was determined by the amount of land and livestock. The place of a person in society was determined by the class to which he belonged from birth.
The industrial stage of development began about 300 years ago. It took place in four stages:
It is believed that the post-industrial stage begins after humanity or a separate state reaches a level of development when less than 15% of the population is employed in material production. The United States, Germany and Japan have come close to this stage. Most of their population is employed in the service sector. However, many researchers note that so far no country in the world has reached the indicators of a post-industrial society. In their opinion, in the case of the United States, we are still talking about the final stage of the previous stage.
In the process of functioning, the national economies of individual countries have to face many problems of an exogenous and endogenous nature. The development of the world economy largely depends on their effective resolution. Global problems are interconnected issues of a planetary scale that threaten humanity with serious regression or death. They require an urgent and urgent solution through the joint efforts of the entire world community. Among them are the following:
It is believed that the stages of the world economy are replaced in accordance with the requirements of time. Progress directly depends on this. Sustainable development involves economic growth that does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Central to this issue is the consideration of long-term environmental impacts. In addition, it is important to ensure stability and reduce the negative impact of business cyclicality, since, due to globalization, problems in one country necessarily lead to a complication of the situation in others.
The modern world economy is a complex organism, the functioning of which depends on a number of factors. And the increased interdependence of national economies leads to the fact that problems in one sector or country immediately affect all other participants in the division of labor.
Important geopolitical and economic transformations of the second half of the 20th century - early 21st century, the rapidly developing world economy, its internationalization and integration of the former socialist countries into a single world economy, increasing the degree of openness of national economies, strengthening the interdependence of all subjects of world economic relations opened the way to noticeable changes in the structure and functions of international production and exchange.
The general pattern of changes in the sectoral structure of the world economy is a consistent transition from a high share Agriculture, mining, manufacturing industries to technically relatively simple industries (light industry, food industry), capital- and material-intensive industries (metallurgy, chemical industry) and, finally, to science-intensive industries that create products based on high technologies. In other words, in the process of economic development, the “primary sectors” (agriculture and the extractive industry) give way to the “secondary” ones (manufacturing and construction) in the sectoral structure of the economy, and those to the “tertiary” ones (services).
The development of industry over the past two decades has led to fundamental changes in the conditions and lifestyle of all mankind. Thanks to the introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, the scale of output in absolute terms in all industries of the world continues to increase. The growth of industrial production occurs with a simultaneous reduction in the number of people employed in economically highly developed countries. The level of labor productivity in industry is much higher than in agriculture and even in the service sector.
At the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. The study of the problems of the location of the industry of the world has acquired particular importance due to the fact that globalization and the transition to the post-industrial stage of development have led to the fact that the world economy has begun to restructure and there have been shifts in the location of industrial production both at the local and regional and planetary levels.
At present, a comprehensive study of the peculiarities of location and structural shifts in the industry of the world can contribute to the search for possible ways of structural transformation of Russian industry as part of the world economic complex in order to develop and increase its competitiveness.
Analysis of what happened at the turn of the XX - XXI centuries. changes in the distribution of production of typical types of products of the leading industries made it possible to draw important conclusions about the features and prospects for the development of world industry.
The level of development of any country is determined by the structure of its economy. The economy of a modern state is divided into sectors. It includes manufacturing industries and types of non-manufacturing activities. The concepts of "production" and "non-production" spheres are the most significant characteristics of the structure of the economy.
The non-production sphere (or the service sector) includes such activities in the process of which no material (material) product is created. As a rule, the following branches of the non-manufacturing sphere are distinguished:
The production sphere (“real sector” in modern terminology) is a set of industries and activities, the result of which is a material product (goods). Into industries material production industry, agriculture, transport, communications are usually included.
The division into branches is due to the social division of labor. There are three forms of social division of labor: general, particular and individual.
The general division of labor is expressed in the division of social production into large spheres of material production (industry, agriculture, transport, communications, etc.). The private division of labor is manifested in the formation of various independent branches within industry, agriculture and other branches of material production.
For example, in industry there are:
In turn, each of them consists of highly specialized industries, for example, non-ferrous metallurgy includes copper, lead-zinc, tin and other industries.
A single division of labor exists in an enterprise, institution, organization between people of different professions and specialties.
The most important branch of material production is industry, which consists of many branches and industries that are closely interconnected.
Industry - a set of enterprises (factories, factories, mines, mines, power plants) engaged in the production of tools for both industry itself and for other sectors of the national economy, as well as the extraction of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy production, logging and further processing products obtained in industry or produced in agriculture, production consumer goods.
Industry is the most important branch of the national economy, which has a decisive influence on the level of development of the productive forces of society.
An industry is understood as a set of enterprises that produce products that are homogeneous in terms of economic purpose and are characterized by the commonality of processed raw materials, the homogeneity of the technical base ( technological processes and equipment), professional staff.
The industry consists of two large groups of industries:
The mining industry includes enterprises for the extraction of mining and chemical raw materials, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and non-metallic raw materials for metallurgy, non-metallic ores, oil, gas, coal, peat, shale, salt, non-metallic building materials, light natural aggregates and limestone, as well as hydroelectric power plants, water pipelines, forest exploitation enterprises, fishing and seafood production.
The manufacturing industry includes enterprises for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rolled products, chemical and petrochemical products, machinery and equipment, woodworking products and pulp and paper industry, cement and other building materials, light and food industry products, as well as enterprises for the repair of industrial products (steam locomotive repair, locomotive repair) and thermal power plants.
Industry is the leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of GDP and national income is created. In modern conditions, the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%.
Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, related enterprises and production associations. Its sectoral structure reflects the level industrial development country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. An important condition for raising the efficiency of social production is the improvement of the sectoral structure of industry. The following indicators are commonly used to analyze the sectoral structure of an industry:
Progressive industries include industries whose development ensures the acceleration of scientific and technological progress throughout the national economy. The efficiency of social production largely depends on their development. Progressive industries usually include engineering, electric power and the chemical industry. The growth of their share means that progressive shifts are taking place in the sectoral structure, and this has a beneficial effect on the country's economy.
The lead coefficient expresses the growth rate of an industry or a separate complex T ref to the growth rate of the entire industry T prom:
The outpacing development of the processing industries compared to the extractive industries usually characterizes positive trends in the country's economy (Table 1).
The interconnections of industries, the proportions that have developed between them, are determined by the mode of production, as well as the cumulative effect on its basis of many other factors that determine changes in the sectoral structure of industry. These factors include:
The current stage of economic development of the leading countries of the world is characterized by major shifts in the structure of the economy, which will inevitably lead to new intersectoral and reproduction proportions. Changes in the existing proportions in the economy occurred in two directions:
At the same time, industry and, above all, mechanical engineering, where scientific and technological achievements are accumulated, remains the leading branch of material production.
Big shifts are taking place in the sectoral structure of world industry. They are expressed, first of all, in a change in the proportion between the extractive and manufacturing industries. Throughout the second half of the 20th century. there was a steady downward trend in the share of extractive industries in the total industrial production; now it is about 1/10. But the changes also affected the internal proportions in the mining and manufacturing industries.
Extractive industry is a whole complex of industries and sub-sectors, which includes not only the mining, but also the logging industry. It also includes marine fishing, water supply, hunting and fishing facilities. Approximately 3/4 of the total output of this industry falls on its main sub-sector - the mining industry. In turn, in the structure of the mining industry, 3/5 of the products (by value) are provided by the oil and gas industry, and the rest, in approximately equal shares, by coal and ore mining.
Manufacturing industry- Structurally, a much more complex complex, including more than 300 different industries and sub-sectors, which are usually divided into four blocks:
The first place in the structure of the world manufacturing industry is occupied by mechanical engineering (40% of all products), the second place is occupied by the chemical industry (more than 15%). This is followed by food (14%), light industry (9%), metallurgy (7%) and other industries. The ratio between them changes somewhat with time, but in general remains relatively stable. On the other hand, the shifts taking place in the structure of each of these industries are usually more noticeable. First of all, this applies to mechanical engineering, as the most diversified branch of industrial production.
The fastest growing branch of world engineering has been and remains the electronic and electrical industry, whose share in all manufacturing products has already grown to 1/10. The general engineering industry as a whole is characterized by moderate growth. Moreover, changes are also taking place in its structure: the production of agricultural, textile machinery and equipment is decreasing; increases - road transport vehicles, and especially robots, office equipment, etc. The share of transport engineering in the structure of the manufacturing industry as a whole remains relatively stable, but this also hides internal differences: the share of shipbuilding, rolling stock is declining, but in In general, the share of the automotive industry remains.
There are two strategies (models of industrialization) of developing countries - internally oriented and externally oriented.
The first of them is called the import substitution strategy. It was carried out mainly at the first stage of the industrialization of the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America and consisted in the gradual abandonment of imports of industrial products and in providing the domestic market with its own products. At first, such import substitution was carried out in the production of consumer goods - fabrics, clothing, footwear, furniture, etc. Then it also covered heavy industry products.
However, such import-substituting development as a whole turned out to be insufficiently effective. Therefore, many countries began to come to a different, export-oriented development model, which was based on the promotion of local goods on the world market. To the greatest extent, this model is characteristic of the newly industrialized countries of Asia.
The manufacturing industry in developing countries specializes mainly in the production of simpler, less technology-intensive products.
High indicators of industrial production in developing countries have been achieved primarily due to a relatively small group of these states - primarily the so-called key states (China, India, Brazil, Mexico) and new industrial ones. It is also important that these successes were achieved not only as a result of industrialization as such, but also to a large extent as a result of the deliberate transfer (“migration”) from the North to the South of many mass, labor-intensive, cheap, and, moreover, environmentally dangerous “dirty” industries.
The vast majority of large industrial TNCs are concentrated in the countries of the North, which, among other things, own a significant part of the industrial potential of the countries of the South. Not surprisingly, the industrial products of developing countries are largely destined for the commodity markets of developed countries. As for labor productivity in industry, in terms of its level, the countries of the South are on average four times inferior to the countries of the North, although when calculating this ratio, only the indicators of the most “advanced” of them are taken into account.
All this to some extent also characterizes the distribution of industrial production between large geographical regions of the world. Three stand out among them - Europe, Asia and North America. Of great interest for the geographical analysis of the industry of the world is also the identification of the leading countries, which, in essence, set the tone in this industry. Characteristically, their list included 14 developed and 6 developing countries. It is with these leading countries that the location of the main industrial regions of the world is also connected. (Table 2).
| Countries | Production, billion USD | Countries | |
| USA | 2685 | 305 | Taiwan* |
| Japan | 1235 | 300 | Spain |
| China | 1235 | 270 | Russia |
| Germany | 835 | 250 | Republic |
| Great Britain | 600 | 220 | Netherlands |
| Italy | 520 ^ | 190 | Belgium |
| France | 445 | 190 | Indonesia |
| Brazil | 370 | 190 | Mexico |
| India | 360 | 170 | Australia |
| Canada | 320 | 145 | Thailand |
* Including Hong Kong
Table 2. Top twenty countries by size of industrial production in 2010
When analyzing the sectoral structure of an industry, it is expedient to consider not only its individual branches, but also groups of branches, which are intersectoral complexes. Under industrial complex refers to a set of certain groups of industries that are characterized by the release of similar (related) products or the performance of works (services).
At present, industries are united in the main complexes: fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building, chemical-forestry and agro-industrial.
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) includes coal, gas, oil, peat and shale industries, energy, industries for the production of energy and other types of equipment. All these industries are united by a common goal - to meet the needs of the national economy in fuel, heat, and electricity. Russia is the only large industrialized country that fully provides itself with fuel and energy from its own natural resources and exports fuel and energy in significant volumes. Currently, this complex plays a significant role in providing the country with foreign currency.
The metallurgical complex (MK) is an integrated system of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, metallurgical, mining engineering and repair facilities. The development of the metallurgical industry in Russia predetermines its economic and political independence, industrial and defense potential.
The machine-building complex can be put in first place in the development of the economy. In developed countries, it accounts for 35 to 50% of the total industrial output.
The machine-building complex is a combination of machine-building, metalworking and repair industries. The leading branches of the complex are general mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and radio electronics, transport engineering, as well as the production of computers. Modern level industry does not meet the requirements of economic and social development countries. Mechanical engineering occupies only 20% of general industrial production.
The chemical-forestry complex is an integrated system of the chemical, petrochemical, forestry, woodworking, pulp and paper and wood chemical industries, mechanical engineering and other industries. In terms of wood reserves (about 82 billion m3), Russia occupies a leading position in the world and is 3 times superior to the United States, 30 times to Sweden, and 40 times to Finland. At the same time, the timber industry complex (TIC) contributes only 2.6% to GDP, and 4.3% to foreign exchange earnings from exports.
The agro-industrial complex (AIC) is characterized by the fact that it includes sectors of the economy that are heterogeneous in their technology and production orientation: the agricultural system, processing industries, feed and microbiological industries, agricultural engineering, engineering for light and food industries. About 80 industries are directly or indirectly involved in the activities of the agro-industrial complex. The agro-industrial complex can be considered as a set of technologically and economically connected links of the national economy, the end result of which is the most complete satisfaction of the population's needs for food and non-food products produced from agricultural raw materials.
In the sectoral structure of world industry, there is a gradual decrease in the importance of extractive industries and an increase in the share of manufacturing industries. This is partly due to a decrease in the material intensity of production, primarily in developed countries, as well as the replacement of mineral raw materials with artificial ones. But the main reason for this structural shift is the growing differences in the cost of the products of these industries: in the manufacturing industry, the cost of goods produced per unit of output is much higher, especially in knowledge-intensive industries.
The decline in the share of extractive industries in most developed countries was achieved by increasing the extraction of raw materials in countries with economies in transition and developing countries. Thus, in developed countries, the share of extractive industries in industry is 2%, in developing countries - 14%, and in Russia - about 30%.
In the manufacturing industry of developed countries, the center of gravity is shifting from capital-intensive and metal-intensive industries (metallurgy, oil refining, production of building materials, etc.) to science-intensive ones (electronics, pharmaceuticals, low-tonnage chemistry, aviation and rocket and space). The share of engineering and metalworking products is constantly growing, and last years accounts for about 40% of the production of all manufacturing products in the world. Electronics, together with electrical engineering, is the fastest growing branch of the world industry.
There is a further strengthening of the specialization of developed countries in the production of the most expensive industrial products, primarily science-intensive (aerospace, biotechnology, information and communication)
The sectoral structure of industry characterizes the level of industrial and technical development of the country, the degree of its economic independence and the level of productivity of social labor.
The structure of industry is also affected by the outstripping rates of development of industries that primarily ensure scientific and technological progress - mechanical engineering, the chemical industry and the electric power industry.
Mechanical engineering is the main branch of modern industry in terms of the number of employees, the value of products and, accordingly, the share in all industrial production. This is explained by the fact that it is this industry that primarily provides all sectors of the economy with the instruments of production (machines, equipment, instruments, etc.), and the population with consumer goods, including durables.
Among the economically developed countries of the West, a small group of states stands out (USA, Japan, Germany, Great Britain), which have a complete range of machine-building production, the share of which in the structure of their manufacturing industry is 35-38%, and in exports - 50% or more. Directly behind this group are countries (France, Italy, Spain, Canada, Republic of Korea) with a somewhat less complete structure of mechanical engineering and its smaller share in the structure of the manufacturing industry (25-33%), as well as in exports. Some small countries of Western Europe (Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Austria) are usually singled out as a separate group, in which certain branches of engineering, primarily export-oriented, have received a very large development. In other countries, mechanical engineering is less developed, and imports of machinery prevail over their exports.
Despite the continuing lag of the developing countries, progress has recently been noticeable in their mechanical engineering. But it concerns only a relatively small number of countries - China, Brazil, India, Mexico, Argentina, and newly industrialized countries. All of them have a sufficiently qualified and at the same time much cheaper than in Western Europe, the USA and Japan, labor force.
Fuel and energy sectors are capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all its industries are represented, usually the main investments in the range of up to 85% fall on the oil and gas industry and the electric power industry (in approximately equal shares) and up to 15% on oil refining and the coal industry. A significant impact on the investment process in the fuel and energy complex as a whole is exerted by investments in the oil industry.
In accordance with the cyclical nature of the development of the oil industry, there are also changes in investment not only in this industry, but also in the fuel and energy complex as a whole.
Nuclear energy is becoming an increasingly important source of fuel and energy resources. Currently, there are about 140 nuclear reactors operating in the world. Their share in the total volume of electricity production in the world remains at the level of 10-11%. Nuclear engineering firms do not expect an increase in orders for equipment for new nuclear power plants (NPPs) for at least the next 10 years. After the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986, the influx of orders became extremely small.
However, in general, the dependence of the energy sector of a number of countries of the world on nuclear power plants is very significant. The cost of electricity at nuclear power plants is 20% lower than at TPPs running on coal, and 2.5 times lower than those running on fuel oil.
By 2020-2030, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power plants, according to calculations, will be 30%, and this will require a significant increase in uranium production.
The leading position in the group of fuel and raw materials is occupied by oil. However, in recent years, due to structural changes in the economy, there has been a decrease in oil consumption. In recent years, international trade in natural gas has developed rapidly.
The dependence of industrialized countries on oil imports, including from OPEC member countries, remains still high: almost 100% from Japan, 95% from France and Germany, 40% from the United States.
Russia has traditionally played an important role in global exports of fuel and energy products, especially oil and natural gas. The export of energy carriers now provides over 50% of all foreign exchange earnings in the Russian Federation from foreign trade.
Among the engineering industries, the aerospace industry (ARSP), microelectronics, and automotive industry are at the center of modern state industrial policy in the countries under consideration. It is these industries that play and, apparently, will retain in the considered perspective a key role in the development of not only mechanical engineering, but also the entire economy of the leading Western countries as the most important "suppliers" of basic technologies (microelectronics and ARCP) and the center of the broadest cooperative ties in the economies of countries in general (automotive industry).
State regulation of these industries is carried out in two main directions - along the line of stimulating the innovation process and through the implementation of various measures, including protectionist ones, in order to facilitate competitive conditions for national firms in the domestic and foreign markets.
The development of the machine-building complex is organically connected with the intensification of research activities. The intensification of R&D is due to the reduction life cycle goods, increased competition, more complex scientific projects, which for the most part acquire an interdisciplinary character. At present, the United States spends more on R&D in engineering than Japan, Germany and Great Britain combined. In absolute terms, annual spending on R&D in the US as a whole for the machine-building complex is comparable to the total capital investment in fixed capital of machine-building, and in some industries even exceeds them. The volume of scientific research and development is growing at the fastest pace in new, science-intensive branches of mechanical engineering, such as ARCP, the electronics industry, computer production, and instrument making.
In the group of traditional industries in Japan (general, transport engineering), the main directions for the qualitative improvement of products in the forecast period are to increase reliability, safety, environmental friendliness, energy efficiency, productivity of machinery and equipment, use automated systems control of the operation of the main units based on microprocessor technology.
In the EU countries, the total share of the electrical industry (including the production of computers and radio electronics), instrumentation and ARCP in the total volume of engineering products, according to available estimates, is approximately 50-55% in 2015, including the actual production of computers -15%.
As for the world trade in machinery and equipment, more than 80% of this industry is industrial countries. The share of Russia in the world export of machinery and equipment is less than 1%, and in the total volume of Russian exports of machinery and technical products to the industrialized countries of the West, the share of machinery and equipment is estimated at only 2-2.5%. Therefore, in the near future, most likely, a significant increase in the share of exports of machinery and equipment in its total volume will not occur.
The agro-industrial complex is a unified system of agricultural, industrial and service enterprises.
The agro-industrial complex is divided into three areas:
The share of the agro-industrial complex in world GDP is estimated at 20-25% and tends to increase due to the growing production of machinery, equipment and chemicals, as well as an increase in the degree of processing of raw materials. The ratio between the three areas of the agro-industrial complex in developed countries is currently 2:1:7. This shift is caused not only by the outstripping growth of the processing industries, but also by the stagnation in the production of machinery and chemicals for agriculture.
In countries with economies in transition, the share of agriculture in the structure of the agro-industrial complex is much higher than in developed countries, which reflects a lower level of development of agricultural processing. In Russia, the ratio of agricultural sectors is 2:4:4. This change is determined by the trend towards accelerated growth of the food industry caused by market transformations, but also by the crisis in the sphere of industries supplying the means of production for agriculture in the Russian agro-industrial complex.
In the world market of agricultural products, the largest food exporters are the USA, the EU countries, Canada, Australia, Brazil, China, and the largest importers are Japan, the USA, the EU countries, and Russia. However, it should be mentioned that according to the International Service for Agricultural Biotechnology, the area under transgenic crops in the USA is 72%, in Argentina - 17%, in Canada - 10% of the total area occupied by agricultural crops.
The state of the food market in Russia is characterized by an increase in the volume and cost of imports of food products and raw materials for their production (this is especially typical for the European part of the Russian Federation).
The transport complex is one of the main branches of material production, carrying out the transportation of passengers and goods.
The transport systems of developed countries account for 78% of the total length of the world transport network, 74% of the world freight turnover; It is characterized by a high technical level, close interaction of all types of transport, a complex configuration of the transport network, and high "mobility" of the population.
The transport systems of developing countries account for 22% of the total length of the world transport network, 26% of the world freight turnover; characterized by a low technical level, the predominance of one or two types of (railway, pipeline) transport, the predominance of transport lines connecting the main center (port, capital) with areas of export specialization, low "mobility" of the population.
The most developed are the transport systems of North America and Western Europe. North America ranks first in terms of the total length of roads (30% of all world communications) and in terms of cargo turnover of the main modes of transport. Western Europe leads in terms of network density and frequency of traffic, although it is much inferior to North America in terms of transportation distance. At the same time, both in North America and in Western Europe, the leading role belongs to road, pipeline and air transport.
In terms of the structure of world freight and passenger traffic, road transport is the leader, accounting for 8% of freight turnover and 80% of passenger turnover of the total world volume (railway transport - 16% of cargo turnover and 11% of passenger traffic, pipeline transport - 11% of cargo turnover, sea transport - 62% of cargo turnover). and 1% of passenger turnover, on the river - 3% of the cargo turnover and 1% of the passenger turnover, on the air - less than 1% of the cargo turnover and 8% of the passenger turnover).
Railway transport provides transportation of goods and passengers over long distances. Greatest length railways- in the USA, Canada, Russia, India, China. Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic have the most dense network of railways. Russia, USA, China, Canada, Poland are leaders in cargo turnover.
In developed countries, there is a tendency to reduce the railway network, in developing countries, on the contrary, to expand.
Pipeline transport. The first oil pipelines were built in the USA at the end of the 19th century. This country is currently the leader in the length of oil and gas pipelines. Along with the US, Russia and Canada have the longest pipelines. The world's largest main pipelines have been laid in Russia (Druzhba, Soyuz, Progress, Radiance of the North).
Sea transport- an important part of the global transport system, performing intercontinental transportation. Sea transport provides 98% of foreign trade transportation of Japan and Great Britain, 90% of all foreign trade transportation of the USA and CIS countries.
Sea transport has the lowest cost. The first place in terms of shipping is occupied by the Atlantic Ocean, where three main directions of transportation have been formed:
Seaports are an important part of the transport system: universal (typical for developed countries) and specialized (typical for developing countries).
Air transport is the youngest and most dynamic, it provides transportation of passengers and goods over long distances. The largest passenger turnover is noted in the USA, Russia, Japan, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany.
The largest airports in the world are located in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, London. There are 34 major airports in the world, half of which are in the US and 8 in Europe.
Maritime transport is considered to be the most universal and effective means of delivering large masses of goods over long distances. It provides more than 60% of international trade. Air transport has become a serious competitor to maritime transport in the intercontinental transportation of valuable cargo in recent decades. Rail, river and road transport is widely used mainly in intracontinental foreign trade, as well as in the transportation of export and import goods through the territory of sellers and buyers. Piping systems play an important role in international trade oil and gas. In addition, air transport has firmly taken a leading position in international passenger traffic.
Industry is important component a single complex of the world economy, the first leading branch of material production. The degree of satisfaction of society's needs for products vital for all industries and for all people, the provision of technical re-equipment and the intensification of production depend on success in its development. It is industrial products that guarantee the satisfaction of the basic modern material social needs. About 400 million people are employed in world industry. Industrial goods account for 70% of world trade.
Summing up, we can definitely conclude that modern industry is characterized by a high degree of specialization. In the world economy, there is a tendency to reduce the share of primary industries and agriculture, the technical modernization of industry and fast growth service industries. This is confirmed by the fact that the decrease in the number of employed occurs mainly due to traditional industries with a high labor intensity of production (food, textile, clothing, leather), as well as due to capital-intensive industries (in particular, metallurgy), and the rise in the number of employed - in the electrical industry and instrumentation.
With the accelerated growth of industry, the world's industrial capacities are being redistributed, however, as before, developed countries specialize in technically complex and knowledge-intensive industries, relying on product quality and highly skilled workers. Developing countries are increasingly beginning to specialize in high-tech products. Therefore, at the moment there is a pronounced trend of active movement of labor-intensive industries from more developed to less developed countries, and vice versa, technology-intensive industries - from less developed to more developed ones.
Analyzing the fuel and energy balance for a certain historical period, it should be noted that the world's fuel industry has gone through several stages in its development:
Oil production in the world in 1950 - 2000 increased almost 7 times (from 0.5 to 3.5 billion tons). The oil industry is one of the most monopolized extractive industries. Apart from a few countries where oil production is run by state-owned companies, the industry is completely controlled by the largest TNCs and. In opposition to them, oil exporters created an organization fighting for the right to dispose of oil on their territory and controlling over half of its production.
Before World War II, 80% of the oil was produced by Severnaya. and , where the USA stood out (over half of the world's production) and . But after the war, with the discovery of large oil fields in the Near and Middle East, as well as in the USSR, America's share began to decline rapidly (21% in 2000). The main part of the oil now gives (up to 38%). The shares of individual leading countries in production in 2000 (USA or ) do not exceed 12 - 13%. USSR in the late 80s. reached the maximum level of oil production among all oil-producing countries - 624 million tons (20% of world production), which no country has surpassed.
Oil is one of the most important export commodities of world trade. Half of all oil produced (over 1.5 billion tons) is exported. Its most important suppliers are the countries of the Near and Middle East. The vast majority of exported oil is transported in tankers by sea. The largest flow through pipelines goes from Russia to many countries of Western and. And although the share of oil has decreased slightly, it remains in first place in terms of global energy consumption.
Gas is produced by 60 countries, Russia, the USA are in the lead,.
The main problems of the fuel industry are:
To solve these problems, new resource-saving technologies are being developed, and new deposits are being searched for.
Share of various types of plants in energy production in different countries is not the same, so TPPs prevail in the Netherlands, Poland, South Africa, China, Mexico, Italy. A significant proportion of hydroelectric power plants in Norway, Brazil, Canada,. In the late 80s, nuclear power plants were actively built and operated. During this period they were built in 30 countries of the world. A significant share of energy at nuclear power plants is generated in France, the Republic of Korea, Sweden,.
The main problems of the electric power industry are:
The solution to the problem is in the use of energy, such as:
Metallurgy- one of the main basic industries, providing other industries with structural materials (ferrous and non-ferrous metals).
For quite a long time, the size of metal smelting almost in the first place determined the economic power of any country. And all over the world they are growing rapidly. But in the 70s of the XX century, the growth rate of metallurgy slowed down. But steel remains the main structural material in.
Metallurgy includes all processes from ore mining to production finished products. The metallurgical industry includes two branches: ferrous and non-ferrous.
Chemical industry is one of the avant-garde industries that ensure the development of the economy in the era of scientific and technological revolution. The development of the entire economy depends on its development, since it provides other industries with new materials - mineral fertilizers and plant protection products, and the population - with a variety of household chemicals.
The chemical industry has a complex sectoral composition. It includes:
For mining and chemical - a natural resource factor determining, for basic and organic synthesis chemistry - consumer, water and energy.
There are 4 major regions:
The following countries are leading in the production of certain types of chemical products:
The chemical industry has a significant impact on nature. On the one hand, the chemical industry has a wide raw material base, which makes it possible to dispose of waste and actively use secondary raw materials, which contributes to a more economical use of natural resources. In addition, it creates substances that are used for chemical purification of water, air, plant protection, restoration.
On the other hand, it itself is one of the most "dirty" industries that affect all components of the natural environment, which requires regular environmental protection measures.
The world economy is a set of national economies interconnected by a system of international division of labor and international economic relations; it is a historically established and gradually developing system of national economies of the countries of the world
If this work does not suit you, there is a list of similar works at the bottom of the page. You can also use the search button
ESSAY
by discipline " World economy»
on the topic:
The role of modern industry in the world economy
The world economy is a set of national economies interconnected by a systeminternational division of laborand international economic relations; it is a historically established and gradually developing system of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by world economic relations, developing on the basis of the international geographical division of labor
Industry set of enterprises engaged in production tools for other sectors of the national and world economy and for industry itself, as well as the extraction of raw materials, materials,fuel, production energy, logging and further processing of products obtained in industry or produced inagriculture, consumer goods production. Industry the most important industrynational economy, which has a decisive influence on the level of development of the productive forces of society.
Success in the development of industry determines the degree to which society's needs for products vital for all branches of the economy and for all people, the provision of technical re-equipment and the intensification of production, depend. It is industrial products that guarantee the satisfaction of the basic modern material social needs. About 400 million people are employed in world industry. Manufactured goods account for 70% of world trade. Therefore, the study of the place and role of modern industry in the world economy is certainly a relevant topic.
The purpose of this study is to study the role of modern industry in the world economy.To achieve the goal, the following tasks are formulated:
The object of this work is the world economy.The subject of this work is modern industry in the world economy.
An industry is a set of business entities, regardless of their departmental affiliation and forms of ownership, developing and (or) producing products (performing work and providing services) of certain types that have a homogeneous consumer or functional value.
The classification of industries is based on the following principles:
The most important principle of the classification of industries is the economic purpose of the products produced. In accordance with this, the whole industry is divided into two large groups: industries that produce means of production, and industries that produce consumer goods.
According to the nature of the functioning of products in the production process, the entire industry is divided into industries that produce elements of fixed assets, elements of circulating funds, and consumer goods. In practice, the classification of industries is widely used, providing for their association into large complex industries according to one of the following criteria: the intended purpose of the product, the commonality of the feedstock, the relatedness of the technology used.
The classification of industries according to the nature of the impact on the object of labor divides them into two groups: extractive and manufacturing industries. The mining industry includes mining enterprises - for the extraction of non-ferrous and ferrous metal ores and non-metallic raw materials for metallurgy, mining and chemical raw materials, oil, gas, coal, peat, shale, salt, non-metallic building materials, as well as hydroelectric power plants, forestry enterprises, for catching fish and seafood harvesting.
The manufacturing industry includes enterprises for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rolled products, chemical and petrochemical products, machinery and equipment, woodworking products and pulp and paper industry, cement and other building materials, light and food industry products, as well as thermal power plants and repair enterprises. industrial products.
There is also a classification of industries that provides for their association into large complex industries according to one of the following features: the intended purpose of the product, the commonality of the feedstock, the relatedness of the technology used. In accordance with this classification, the industry of any country can be divided into three large branches:
Depending on the time of occurrence of the industry, the industry is divided into three groups:
To characterize the intersectoral relations, the level of development of various industries, their contribution to the gross domestic product allows the sectoral classification of industry. It is based on the International Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities - ISIC (International Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities - ISIC). Until January 1, 2003, the sectoral classification in Russia was determined by the All-Union Classification of Industries of the National Economy (OKONKh). He was replaced All-Russian classifier species economic activity(OKVED).
When analyzing the sectoral structure of an industry, it is advisable to consider not only its individual sectors, but also groups of industries that are intersectoral complexes (these are aggregates of certain groups of industries that are characterized by the production of similar or related products or the performance of works and services). Below is a table that reflects the main characteristics of intersectoral complexes.
Table 1
Composition of intersectoral industrial complexes
|
Name and definition of intersectoral complex |
Industries included in the complex |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
industries and activities (primarily R&D) focused on meeting the needs of the Armed Forces |
Table 1 continued
As can be seen from the table, 8 intersectoral complexes of industry are distinguished. The development of one or another branch of industry in the country determines the development of a whole intersectoral complex, characterizes the direction of the state's economy, the direction of economic policy.
There are three main stages in the development of the fuel and energy industry of the world: coal, oil and gas, modern.
At the end of XIX and beginning of XX century. industrial energy and the international fuel trade were dominated by coal. Back in 1948, the share of coal in the total consumption of the main energy sources was 60%. But in the 50s and 60s. The structure of energy consumption has changed significantly, with oil taking the first place - 51%, the share of coal has decreased to 23%, natural gas - 21.5%, hydropower - 3%, nuclear energy - 1.5%.
Such changes in the structure of energy consumption were due to the widespread development of new large sources of oil and natural gas; a number of advantages of these fuels over solid fuel(high efficiency of extraction, transportation, consumption); the scale of the use of oil and natural gas has increased not only as fuel, but also as industrial raw materials.
Since the 80s. as a priority, a direction is put forward that provides for the transition from the use of predominantly exhaustible resources to the use of inexhaustible, non-traditional energy sources (wind, solar, tidal energy, nuclear energy, geothermal sources, hydro resources, etc.).
As a result, the share of oil in the total consumption and production of energy resources began to decline (to 38% in 2000), the value of the angle increased again (31%), and natural gas strengthened its positions (23.5%). The growth in the use of hydropower, nuclear and other (alternative) energy sources is becoming more and more noticeable.
AT modern economy oil and oil products are widely used both for energy purposes and as chemical raw materials.Oil belongs tonon-renewable resources. Explored oil reserves in 2004 amount to 210 billion tons (1200 billion tons).barrels), undiscovered are estimated at 52260 billion tons (3001500 billion barrels).
World oil productioncurrently (for 2006) is about 3.8 billion tons per year, or 30 billion barrels per year.
The leading role in world oil production is played by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which includes Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Indonesia, and Venezuela. The role of the CIS countries, primarily Russia, Azerbaijan (Absheron Peninsula, shelf and bottom of the Caspian Sea), Turkmenistan (fields in the Uzboy region), Kazakhstan (fields Tengiz, Karachaganak, Mangyshlak Peninsula, Ural-Emba basin) is also very large in world oil production.
table 2
Oil production at the world's largest fields
As can be seen from the table, most of the oil is produced in the Persian Gulf (250 million tons in 2006). If we compare the figures for 2006 and 2008, it can be argued that there is a tendency to increase oil production in the world economy.
The top ten oil producers are Saudi Arabia, Russia, Iran, China, Venezuela, Mexico, UAE, Algeria, Kazakhstan, Angola.
About half of all oil produced is exported. Apart fromOPEC member countries, whose share in world oil exports is 65%, its largest suppliers to the world market are also Russia, Mexico, and the UK.
The sharp rise in oil prices in 20032008, as well as limited reservesoil make relevant the development of technologies with reduced consumption of petroleum products, as well as the development of alternativegenerating capacity,not using refined petroleum products.
Natural gas, like oil, is used as a fuel and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Natural gas is found in the ground at depths ranging from 1,000 meters to several kilometers. In the bowels of the gas is in microscopic voids (pores). The pores are interconnected by microscopic channels - cracks, through these channels the gas flows from the pores with high pressure to the pores with lower pressure until it reaches the well. The movement of gas in the reservoir obeys certain laws. Gas is extracted from the bowels of the earth with the help of wells.
The world's largest natural gas producers are presented in the table:
Table 4
The world's largest gas producers
In 2005 in Russia the volume of natural gas production amounted to 548 billion m³. Domestic consumers were supplied with 307 billion m³ through 220 regional gas distribution organizations. Within the territory ofThere are 24 natural gas storage facilities in Russia. Length of main gas pipelines Russia is 155 thousand km.
In 2009 For the first time, the United States overtook Russia not only in terms of the volume of gas produced (624 billion m³ versus 582.3 billion m³), but also in terms of production of marketable gas, that is, sold to counterparties. This is due to the increase in productionshale gas.
AT environmentally, natural gas is the cleanest type of mineral fuel. When burned, it produces a significantly smaller amount of harmful substances compared to other types of fuel. However, the burning by mankind of a huge amount of various types of fuel, including natural gas, over the past half century has led to some insignificant increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which isgreenhouse gas. On this basis, some scientists conclude that there is a danger of the greenhouse effect and, as a result, climate warming.
Despite the reduction in the importance of metal as a structural material, at present it still remains the basis of modern industry, and in particular mechanical engineering.
For a number of years, the world metallurgy experienced a rather difficult period of adaptation to structural changes in modern economy e. To the greatest extent, these problems have affected ferrous metallurgy. Over the past decades, metal conservation has increased dramatically in all areas of the economy. In this regard, the specific consumption of steel products per unit of GDP has decreased.
The world leader in steel production is China, whose share in the first half of 2009 was 48%. According to the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI), steel production in 2007 in the world amounted to:
Table 5
Steel production in the world in 2007
In 2008, the world produced 1 billion 329.7 million tons of steel, which is 1.2% less than in 2007. This was the first reduction in annual production in the last 11 years.
According to the results of the first six months of 2009, steel production in 66 countries of the world, whose share in the global steel industry is at least 98%, decreased by 21.3% compared to the same period of the previous year from 698.2 million tons to 549 .3 million tons
China increased steel production by 1.2% to 266.6 million tons compared to the same period in 2008. In India, steel production increased by 1.3% to 27.6 million tons.
In the United States, steel production fell by 51.5%, in Japan by 40.7%, in South Korea by 17.3%, in Germany by 43.5%, in Italy by 42.8%, in France by 41.5%, in the UK by 41.8%, in Brazil by 39.5%, in Russia by 30.2%, in Ukraine by 38.8%.
In June 2009, steel production in the world amounted to 99.8 million tons, which is 4.1% more than in May 2009.
Big changes occur in the international trade in ferrous metals. Japan and EU countries are traditional exporters of ferrous metal products. And now they account for more than half of world exports. The first place belongs to Germany.
But in recent years, the position of the Republic of Korea has been significantly strengthened, which is actively being introduced into the markets of the USA, Japan and China. Korea is the world's largest indirect exporter of steel. So, in the 90s. Steel intensity of Korean exports was 10 times higher than the corresponding indicator of the EU countries and 3 times higher than that of Japan. Korea, in particular, exports 60% of cars, about 90% of ships, 60% of the electrical and electronic sector.
Approximately 70 different types of non-ferrous metals are currently produced in the world. The five "giants" are aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, lead. They include St. 97-98% of the total smelting. A prominent place is also occupied by tin, cobalt, chromium, tungsten, molybdenum and some others.As of 2010, the share of non-ferrous metallurgy in Russian GDP is 2.6%, in industrial production 10.2%
especially large economic importance aluminum. The world's largest bauxite mining areas, raw materials for aluminum production, are located in Northern Australia, on the York Peninsula, as well as in the Guinea region in Africa and in the Caribbean (Jamaica), etc. Aluminum production gravitates towards the centers of electricity production.
In 2007 38 million tons of primary aluminum were produced in the world, and in2008 39.7 Mt. Production leaders were:
PRC (in 2007 it produced 12.60 million tons, and in 2008 13.50 million tons); Russia(3.96/4.20) ; Canada (3.09/3.10); US (2.55/2.64); Australia (1.96/1.96); Brazil (1.66/1.66); India (1.22/1.30); Norway (1.30/1.10); UAE (0.89/0.92); Bahrain (0.87/0.87); South Africa (0.90/0.85); Iceland (0.40/0.79); Germany (0.55/0.59); Venezuela (0.61/0.55); Mozambique (0.56/0.55); Tajikistan (0.42/0.42).
The copper industry has been greatly developed in countries with large deposits of copper ore. In the first place - Chile, the second place belongs to the USA. Indonesia, Australia, Canada, Russia are also of great importance. One of the largest areas of the copper industry has developed in Central Africa. This is the so-called copper belt, 500 km long, on the territory of Zaire and Zambia. Copper ore is mined here, black and refined copper is smelted.
Russia is considered a great nickel power. It produces 24.2% of the world's nickel production. Nickel production in Canada is 186.2 thousand tons (17.8% of the world production), in Australia - 124.9 thousand tons (11.9%), on about. New Caledonia - 90.3 thousand tons (8.6%), in Indonesia - 83.9 thousand tons (8.0%).
On the present stage there is increased attention to the smelting of rare metals (titanium, magnesium, germanium, tantalum, niobium, etc.), which are not only of purely economic importance, but are also important for military-strategic purposes.
Non-ferrous metals also include gold (the main production is carried out in South Africa - 447.2 tons, USA - 340.0 tons, Australia - 302.6 tons) and silver (the largest producers are Mexico, Peru, USA, Australia and Chile).
Mechanical engineering is the main branch of the world industry, it accounts for about 35% of the value of world industrial output. Among industries, mechanical engineering is the most labor-intensive production. Instrument-making, the electrical and aerospace industries, nuclear engineering, and other industries producing complex equipment are particularly labor-intensive. In this regard, one of the main conditions for the placement of mechanical engineering is to provide it with a qualified workforce, the presence of a certain level of production culture, and research and development centers.
Proximity to the raw material base is important only for some branches of heavy engineering (production of metallurgical, mining equipment, boiler building, etc.).
In the mechanical engineering of the world, the dominant position is occupied by a small group of developed countries - the United States, which account for almost 30% of the cost of engineering products, Japan - 15%, Germany - about 10%, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada. Almost all types of modern machine building are developed in these countries, and their share in the world export of machines is high. With an almost complete range of engineering products, the key role in the development of engineering in this group of countries belongs to the aerospace industry, microelectronics, robotics, nuclear power engineering, machine tool building, heavy engineering, and the automotive industry.
The group of world mechanical engineering leaders also includes Russia (6% of the value of engineering products), China (3%) and several small industrialized countries Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, the Netherlands, etc. Mechanical engineering has also made great progress in its development in developing countries.
In developed countries, mechanical engineering is based on a high level of research and development (R&D), highly skilled workforce and is focused mainly on the production of technically complex and high-quality products. The engineering industry of developing countries, based on the cheapness of local labor, specializes, as a rule, in the production of mass, labor-intensive, technically simple, low-quality types of products. Among the enterprises there are many purely assembly plants that receive complete sets of machines in disassembled form from industrialized countries. A few developing countries have modern machine-building plants, primarily new industrial ones - South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, India, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. The main directions of development of their mechanical engineering are the production of household electrical equipment, the automotive industry, and shipbuilding.
Mechanical engineering is subdivided into general engineering, including machine tool building, heavy engineering, agricultural engineering, and other industries, transport engineering, and electrical engineering, including electronics. The largest producers and exporters of general engineering products in general are developed countries: Germany, the USA, Japan, etc. Developed countries are also the main manufacturers and suppliers of machine tools to the world market (Japan, Germany, USA, Italy and Switzerland stand out). The production of agricultural machinery and simple equipment predominates in the general engineering industry of the developing countries.
Among the branches of transport engineering, the automotive industry is developing most dynamically. The area of its spatial distribution is constantly growing and currently includes, along with the traditional, main car manufacturers (Japan, USA, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, Sweden, Spain, Russia, etc.), relatively new countries for the industry - South Korea, Brazil, Argentina, China, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Poland.
Unlike the automotive industry, the aircraft industry, shipbuilding, and the production of railway rolling stock are experiencing stagnation. The main reason for this is the lack of demand for their products. Shipbuilding has moved from developed countries to developing countries. The largest ship manufacturers were South Korea (outstripped Japan and took first place in the world), Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, China, and Taiwan. At the same time, the United States, the countries of Western Europe (Great Britain, Germany, etc.), as a result of the reduction in the production of ships, ceased to play a significant role in world shipbuilding.
The aviation industry is concentrated in countries with a high level of science and skilled workforce USA, Russia, France, Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands.
In the territorial structure of the world mechanical engineering, there are four main regions North America, foreign Europe, East and Southeast Asia and the CIS.
North America (USA, Canada, Mexico, Puerto Rico) accounts for approximately 1/3 of the value of engineering products. In the international division of labor, the region acts as the largest manufacturer and exporter of highly sophisticated machines, heavy engineering products and science-intensive industries. In the United States, which occupies a leading position in the region and the world in terms of total cost engineering products, a large role belongs to aerospace engineering, military-industrial electronics, computer production, nuclear power engineering, military shipbuilding, etc.
The countries of Europe (excluding the CIS) also account for about 1/3 of the world's engineering products. The region is represented by mechanical engineering of all kinds, it is especially distinguished by general mechanical engineering (machine tool building, production of equipment for metallurgy, textile, paper, watch and other industries), electrical engineering and electronics, transport engineering (automotive industry, aircraft building, shipbuilding). The leader of European mechanical engineering Germany the largest exporter in the region and the world of general engineering products.
The region, which includes the countries of East and Southeast Asia, provides about a quarter of the world's engineering products. The main stimulating factor in the development of mechanical engineering in the countries of the region is the relative cheapness of labor. The leader of the region Japan is the second machine-building power in the world, the largest exporter of products of the most qualified industries (microelectronics, electrical engineering, aircraft engineering, robotics, etc.). Other countries China, Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. produce labor-intensive but less complex products (production of household electrical appliances, automobiles, marine vessels, etc.) and are also very actively involved in the work on the external market .
CIS countries form a special region of the world mechanical engineering. They have a complete range of machine-building production. The sectors of the military-industrial complex, the aviation and space-rocket industries, consumer electronics, and individual simple branches of general engineering (production of agricultural machinery, metal-intensive machine tools, power equipment, etc.) have received great development here.
Outside the main machine-building regions, there are machine-building centers that are quite large in terms of scale and complexity of the structure of production - India, Brazil, Argentina. Their mechanical engineering works mainly for the domestic market. These countries export cars, sea vessels, bicycles, simple types of household appliances (refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners, calculators, watches, etc.).
The chemical industry includes:
The location of the chemical industry depends on many factors. The chemical industry is a very capacious consumer of raw materials, the specific costs of which in some cases significantly exceed the weight of the finished product (production of soda, synthetic rubber, plastics, chemical fibers, potash and nitrogen fertilizers, etc.).
In addition to a large amount of raw materials, chemical industries (the production of synthetic materials, soda, etc.) consume a lot of water, fuel and energy.
Its science-intensive industries (production of varnishes, dyes, reagents, pharmaceuticals, photo and pesticides, high-quality polymer materials, chemicals for special purposes for electronics, etc.) place high demands on the level of training of the workforce, the development of R&D, the production of special equipment (devices devices, machines).
Strengthening the science intensity of the chemical industry as a whole and especially its individual industries predetermined the priority development of the industry in highly developed countries. Many traditional branches of the chemical industry mining chemistry, inorganic chemistry (including the production of fertilizers), the production of some simple organic products (including plastics and chemical fibers) have been developing rapidly in recent years in developing countries.
Below are the largest chemical companies in the world:
Table 6
As can be seen from the table, the first place belongs to the company BASF AG , Germany, companies from the USA, Great Britain, Germany are also in the lead.
A very large area specializing in the production of chemical products (mainly semi-products of organic synthesis and fertilizers) has developed in the Persian Gulf zone. The raw material for production here is the huge resources of associated (oil production) gas. The oil-producing countries of the region - Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Iran, Bahrain, and others - account for 57% of the world's chemical products, which are almost entirely export-oriented.
Outside these areas, the chemical industry of the CIS countries is distinguished by a high level of development, where Russia, China, the Republic of Korea, India, Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil stand out.
Among the industries, the leading place is occupied by the industry of polymeric materials, based on oil and gas or petrochemical raw materials. For a long period of time, the raw material base for the industry of polymeric materials almost everywhere was coal-chemical and vegetable raw materials. The change in the nature of the raw material base also had a significant effect on the geography of industry: the importance of coal regions decreased, the role of oil and gas production areas and coastal regions increased.
Currently, the most powerful industry of organic synthesis is in economically developed countries that have large reserves of oil and gas (USA, Canada, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, etc.), or are in a favorable position for the supply of these types of chemical raw materials (Japan, Italy, France). , Germany, Belgium, etc.).
All of the above countries occupy leading positions in the world production of synthetic resins and plastics and other types of synthetic products. Of the polymer industries, only the production of chemical fibers shows a shift towards developing countries. In this type of production, along with the traditional leaders - the USA, Japan, Germany, etc., China, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, and India have also become major producers in recent years.
Unlike the industry of polymeric materials, the mining and basic chemistry industries are widely represented not only in economically developed countries, but also in developing countries.
The leading producers of mineral fertilizers are China, USA, Canada, India, Russia, Germany, Belarus, France, Ukraine, Indonesia. At the same time, the countries of Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Senegal, Benin), Asia (Jordan, Israel), the CIS (Russia, Kazakhstan), Christmas Islands and Nauru stand out for the extraction and processing of phosphorites, along with the United States.
The vast majority of world production and processing of potash salts is carried out by the USA, Canada, Germany, France, Russia, Belarus.
The main raw material for the production of nitrogen fertilizers is natural gas. Therefore, among the most important producers and exporters of nitrogen fertilizers are, first of all, countries rich in natural gas (USA, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, the countries of the Persian Gulf). AT in large numbers Nitrogen fertilizers are also produced by France, Germany, Poland, the Ukraine, China, and India, whose nitrogen-fertilizer industry is closely connected with the ferrous metallurgy of these countries.
Sulfur producing countries - USA, Canada, Mexico, Germany, France, Poland. Ukraine, Russia, Turkmenistan, Japan, etc. The largest producers of sulfuric acid are the USA, China, Japan and Russia.
Light industry combines many industries and sub-sectors, the main ones being textile, clothing and footwear. These industries are currently developing especially rapidly in the countries of new industrialization and other developing countries, which is largely due to their high supply of raw materials and cheap labor. Industrialized countries, having lost their positions in a number of traditional mass, technically uncomplicated industries (cheap types of fabrics, footwear, clothing, and other types of consumer goods), retain their leading role in the manufacture of especially fashionable, high-quality, expensive products oriented towards high technology and labor qualification, a limited circle of consumers (production of carpets, furs, jewelry, footwear standards, clothing, fabrics from expensive raw materials, etc.).
The textile industry in the era of scientific and technological revolution has significantly changed its structure. For a long period of time, the main branch of the world's textile industry was cotton, followed by wool, linen and the processing of artificial fibers. At present, the share of chemical fibers in the world production of fabrics has increased significantly, while the share of cotton, wool, and especially flax has decreased. Of great importance was the creation of mixed fabrics from natural and chemical fibers, knitwear (knitted fabric). The share of chemical fibers in the textile industry of developed countries has especially increased. In the economies of developing countries, cotton, wool, natural silk remain the main types of textile raw materials, although the share of products made from chemical fibers has recently increased significantly.
The textile industry as a whole is developing at a faster pace in the group of developing countries. Asia has become the main region of the textile industry in the world, which today provides about 70% of the total amount of fabrics, more than half of the production of cotton and woolen fabrics.
The main producers of cotton fabrics are China (30% of world production), India (10%), USA, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Pakistan, Italy, Egypt,
Among the leading producers of woolen fabrics is also a significant part of Asian countries. The world's largest manufacturer of these fabrics is China (15%), followed by Italy (14%), Japan, USA, India, Turkey, Republic of Korea, Germany, Great Britain, Spain.
And in the production of the most expensive silk fabrics, with the absolute leadership of the United States (over 50%), the share of Asian countries is also very large, especially India, China and Japan (over 40%).
The production of linen fabrics has significantly decreased. They are produced in large quantities only in Russia and in Western Europe (in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain).
The developed countries of the world (especially the USA, Italy, Japan, Germany, France), while reducing their share in the production of cotton and woolen fabrics, remain the largest manufacturers of knitwear, fabrics from chemical fibers (synthetic and mixed). Although in these types of textile industry their role is steadily declining due to the organization of production in developing countries (India, China, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, etc.).
In Russia, which used to be one of the largest manufacturers of all types of natural fabrics in the world, there is a strong decline in their production.
The developing countries are also of great importance in the production of garments (underwear, outerwear, etc.). Many of them, and above all China, India, South Korea, Taiwan, Colombia, have become the largest producers and exporters of ready-made clothing. Developed countries (especially the USA, France, Italy, etc.) are increasingly specialized in the production of fashionable, elite, individual products,
The shoe industry, among the light industries, has moved to the greatest extent from developed countries to countries with cheap labor - developing countries. The leaders in the manufacture of footwear are China (which has overtaken the former leaders Italy and the United States in its production and provides more than 40% of footwear in the world) and other Asian countries Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand. In developed countries (Italy, USA, Austria, Germany stand out), mainly the manufacture of leather shoes from expensive raw materials, with high labor intensity of production, has been preserved.. Italy is the largest producer and exporter of such footwear. In Russia, shoe production has decreased several times in recent years, and the country has turned from the world's largest shoe producer (in 1990 second only to China) into a significant shoe importer.
The timber industry includes harvesting, mechanical and chemical processing of wood, pulp and paper production.
The geography of the timber industry is largely determined by the distribution of forest resources. The forest resources of the world (the forested area of the planet, the stocks of wood on it) are concentrated in two different geographic location and species composition of forest belts northern and southern.
The northern forest belt covers the regions of the temperate zone of Eurasia and North America. The forests here are represented mainly by coniferous species (pine, spruce, larch, fir, cedar). Birch, aspen, alder, oak, beech, hornbeam, ash, etc. grow from deciduous trees. Coniferous forests occupy 1.2 billion hectares (or 1/3 of all forest areas in the world) with timber reserves of 127 billion cubic meters. m, of which most of the reserves are in Russia (more than 60%), Canada (about 30%), the USA, Finland and Sweden. In the countries of the northern belt, the bulk of the world's commercial timber is harvested.
The southern forest belt includes humid equatorial and seasonally humid tropical forests of the Amazon in South America (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, etc.), Africa (Republic of the Congo and Côte d'Ivoire, Angola, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, etc.) , South East
Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, etc.), Australia and Oceania (Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, etc.). Deciduous species dominate here. Among them, ornamental ones are especially valuable - mahogany, iron, sandalwood, etc. Most of the belt's timber reserves are concentrated in South America (about 60%) and Asia (25%). In the countries of the southern belt (these are mainly developing countries), only 10 20% of all harvested wood is commercial (most of it is exported to Western Europe, Japan, etc.), the rest is used as fuel.
The volume of timber harvesting in the world is 4 billion cubic meters. m, of which about a third (1.2 billion cubic meters) is harvested in developed countries. In recent years, the share of developing countries has been growing. The United States, Russia, Canada, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria, China, and Sweden stand out in terms of the scale of logging. The largest timber exporters are the USA (15% of world exports), India and Brazil (8% each), Indonesia and Canada (6% each).
Mechanical and chemical processing of wood is the fate of predominantly developed countries. In the world production of sawn timber (500 million cubic meters), the main countries are the USA (20%), Canada (12%), Japan, China and Russia (6% each); pulp (160 million tons) USA (30%), Canada (15%), China, Japan, Sweden, Finland (6-7% each); paper (180 million tons) - USA (45%), Japan (16%), China (12%), Canada (10%), Finland, Sweden, France, Republic of Korea.
Finland (1400 kg), Sweden (670 kg), Canada (530 kg), Norway (400 kg) are leading in paper production per capita (world average 45 kg). In Russia, this figure is much lower - 35 kg.
So, it is clear that the branches of the fuel and energy complex (FEC) are capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all its industries are represented, usually the main capital investments in the range of up to 85% fall on the oil and gas industry and the electric power industry (in approximately equal shares) and up to 15% on oil refining and the coal industry. A significant impact on the investment process in the fuel and energy complex as a whole is exerted by investments in the oil industry.
The cyclical nature of the development of business activity in the oil industry is due to the fact that decisions to increase investment in the oil industry are made at a time when there is a shortage of oil in the markets, accompanied by rising prices and profits. Usually during this period, all participants in the oil business, including financial structures are looking to revitalize the investment process in this industry, and the return on these investments in the form of increased production volumes begins to affect after about 10 years. There is an excess supply of oil over demand in the oil markets, prices begin to decline, which is also accompanied by a decrease in investment until the excess oil disappears. This period also lasts about 10 years. Over the past 100 years, there have been five such cycles, each lasting from 20 to 22 years, and these cycles do not necessarily coincide with the development cycles of the entire economy.
In accordance with the cyclic nature of the development of the oil industry, there were also changes in capital investments not only in this industry, but also in the fuel and energy complex as a whole.
In the development of international trade in raw materials and foodstuffs during the post-war period, a number of important trends are clearly observed, causing significant changes in the commodity structure of world exports. First of all, there is a predominant growth in trade in semi-finished products made on the basis of mineral and vegetable raw materials, which is a consequence of the impact of scientific and technical progress on international trade.
The predominant development of exports of finished and semi-finished products caused a sharp decline in the share of raw materials in world exports.
Noting the trend towards a reduction in the share of commodities in world trade, it should be noted that this is not an absolute, but a relative decrease in the export of these goods. During 1963-1990, for example, the share of raw materials, fuel and food in world exports fell by almost half, while actual exports increased many times over, including oil, natural gas and coal more than 20 times, food 10 times.
Among the huge variety of raw materials and fuel resources circulating in international trade, the leading role is played by fuel and energy products - oil, oil products, natural gas and coal. This group of goods steadily retains its leading role among other commodity groups in world trade. In the early 1990s, fuel and energy products ranked second in international trade and provided more than 10% of world exports, ahead of such large commodity groups as food, chemicals, ores, and second only to the group of machinery and equipment. The leading position in the group of fuel and raw materials is occupied by oil.
1. Vasilenko A. The oil factor in Russian foreign policy // Russian Journal.-2001.-No. 2 ..
2. World economy [ Electronic resource] Access mode: http://global-economics.info/ /
3. Denchev K. The oil and gas factor in international relations // Politiya.- 1999.- No. 3 (13).- p.130.
4. World economy: [Textbook. for universities in economics. specialties and directions] / A.S. Bulatov, E.B. Rogatnykh, R.F. Volkov and others; Ed. A.S. Bulatova.-M.: Jurist, 2009 - 734 p.
5. The concept of the world economy // Educational site [Electronic resource] Access mode: http://ayp.ru/
6. Rodionova I.A. Countries of the World: Economic and Geographical Characteristics: A Handbook for Applicants to Universities. Moscow: Moscow Lyceum, 2004.
7. Ferrous metallurgy of the world // Economy and finance [Electronic resource] Access mode: http://money.rin.ru/
8. Sharipov U.Z. International relations in the Persian Gulf region and the role of the oil factor (the West and the countries of the region) // Abstract of diss.dok.polit.nauk.- M., 2007.
9. Electric power industry of the world // Geography of Russia [Electronic resource] Access mode: http://geogru.com/
Other related works that may interest you.vshm> |
|||
| 20461. | Transnational corporations and their role in world economic development | 49.01KB | |
| The main strategic goal of TNCs is not only profit maximization, but also the creation of conditions under which, under their influence, the future policy of world economic relations will be formed. This factor contributes to the creation of an integrated international system production in which, according to UN experts, the share of TNCs in the total volume is more than 30. The relevance of this topic today is explained by the growing contribution of TNCs to the development of the world economy and the increasing share of participation in world socio-economic processes ... | |||
| 10558. | NATIONAL SECURITY: THE ROLE AND PLACE OF RUSSIA IN THE WORLD COMMUNITY | 44.81KB | |
| The provisions of the Military Doctrine may be refined and supplemented with due regard for changes in the military-political situation, the nature and content of military threats, and the conditions for the construction, development and use of the military organization of the state. They can also be specified in the annual messages of the President Russian Federation Federal Assembly | |||
| 14825. | The role and place of IMA in the chemical industry | 360.68KB | |
| An alternative to standard methods from the point of view of operational control and also from the point of view of an additional source of information are physicochemical methods of analysis based on the separation of chromatography and or subsequent determination of the spectroscopy of the composition and structure of both individual compounds of petroleum origin and mixtures, which in particular include petroleum fractions and petroleum products obtained in the processing of crude oil. The most common and basic method... | |||
| 892. | The economic role of the state in modern Russia | 155.03KB | |
| Whether the country becomes a raw materials appendage of the industrialized countries or joins them, its situation will change radically. The nature and dynamics of the country's economic development are the subject of the closest attention of economists and politicians. | |||
| 5036. | Financial and industrial groups and their role in modern economies | 45.98KB | |
| In the form of financial-industrial groups, a scheme for integrating financial, industrial and commercial structures is being implemented while maintaining the legal independence of each of the group members. In the process of implementing the main tasks of financial and industrial groups, they should become the basis of the economy's investment system | |||
| 2689. | The state, its place and role in the development of the modern service sector | 13.18KB | |
| Uligov The state, its place and role in the development of the modern service sector Organizational and economic transformations accompanying all stages of the reform of social relations are the basis for the formation of consumers of relevant services that can independently act at the level of the municipality. Thus, it becomes possible to create an effective strategic management of the development of the service sector. From these positions, the state should develop a concept of the impact of economic and administrative ... | |||
| 2692. | The role of the subject of informatization of higher education in modern Russia | 16.35KB | |
| Podoprigora The issues of informatization of education have become especially acute in connection with the development of information technologies in the world and education. The multifaceted study of information processes has led to the need for professional training of those who will contribute to the development of informatization of education, engage in research, carry out teaching activities in the information society environment. Global changes in the worldview of the life of society lead to the need for informatization of education development ... | |||
| 10037. | The role and functions of the HR manager in a modern organization | 32.66KB | |
| Theoretical basis The science of personnel management. Head of personnel management in conflict resolution. The purpose of this term paper analysis of the functions of the HR manager in modern organization definition of his role. | |||
| 16197. | . Introduction. State inspections play an important role in the modern economy. | 73.1KB | |
| The task of the tax customs and other inspections is to control the correctness of the payment of budgetary payments by various economic agents, in particular, the provision of benefits provided by law for certain categories of economic agents. At the same time, the task is similar: on the basis of information coming from controlled agents, as well as from other sources, it is necessary to organize a control system in such a way as to minimize damage to society. Checks on low income declarations are organized to prevent evasion. Let... | |||
| 16189. | production infrastructure still plays a key role in the modern Russian economy. | 19.66KB | |
| necessarily carried out only after a serious study was carried out at the project level with the necessary calculations, including the mandatory determination and proof of the non-negativity of the systemic assessment of the effectiveness of the event under consideration. And secondly, that these design calculations, including efficiency assessment, be carried out professionally correctly according to models and algorithms that take into account the specifics of the systems under consideration. natural monopoly and the specifics of their micro and macroeconomic environment. The result is... | |||
