SUMMARY OF LECTURES ON THE COURSE "ECONOMY OF THE ENTERPRISE" Frolova T.A. 2005
CONTENT:
Topic 1. ENTERPRISE IN A MARKET ECONOMY 3
1. The concept of the enterprise, goals and activities 3
2. Legal basis functioning of enterprises 7
3. External and internal environment of the enterprise 9
Topic 2. PERSONNEL OF THE COMPANY 13
1. Classification and structure of the personnel of the enterprise 13
2. Indicators characterizing labor potential 14
Topic 3. PRODUCTION FUNDS 18
1. Feature production assets 18
2. Classification, structure and evaluation of fixed production assets 19
3. Reproduction of fixed production assets 20
4. Production capacity of the enterprise 22
5. Efficiency of reproduction and use of fixed assets and production capacity 23
Topic 4. WORKING ASSETS OF THE ENTERPRISE 25
1. The concept of working capital 25
2. Rationing of working capital 29
3. Indicators of the effectiveness of the use of OBS 33
Topic 5. INTANGIBLE RESOURCES AND ASSETS 34
1. Intangible resources 34
2. Intangible assets 36
Topic 6. PAYMENT AT THE ENTERPRISE 37
1. Essence and functions wages 37
2. Forms and systems of remuneration 44
3. Composition and structure of the wage fund 55
4. Basic principles of organization and regulation of wages 58
Topic 7. PRODUCTION COSTS AND PRODUCT COST CALCULATION 61
1. The concept of cost and cost accounting problems 61
2 Composition and classification of costs for production and sale of products 63
3. Methods of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production 74
Topic 8. FINANCIAL RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISE 81
1. Sources of formation financial resources enterprises 81
2. Investments: essence, types and directions of use 82
3. Performance evaluation investment projects 83
Topic 9. ORGANIZATION OF THE ACTIVITIES OF THE ENTERPRISE 85
1. Production process and its organization 85
2. Organizational types of production 87
3. Production cycle 88
4. Methods of organizing production 89
Topic 10. ENTERPRISE INFRASTRUCTURE 91
1. The concept of enterprise infrastructure, its types and significance 91
2. Maintenance system (auxiliary production) 92
3. capital construction 96
Topic 11. ENTERPRISE PLANNING 97
1. general characteristics planning 97
3. Business plan of the enterprise 100
Topic 12. RESULTS AND EFFICIENCY OF THE ENTERPRISE 101
1. Products of the enterprise, its quality 101
2. Determination of the break-even point 105
3. Profit and income of the enterprise 107
4. Profitability of resources and products 108
5. The concept and types of efficiency 109
6. Criteria and system of indicators of production efficiency 110
Company - it is an independent, organizationally separate economic entity that manufactures and sells products, performs industrial work or provides paid services.
Any enterprise is a legal entity, has a complete accounting and reporting system, an independent balance sheet, settlement and other accounts, a seal with its own name and a trademark (brand).
According to the purpose and nature of the activity, two types of enterprises can be distinguished: entrepreneurial (commercial) and non-entrepreneurial (non-commercial), whose existence is ensured budget financing states.
There are various factors according to which enterprises are divided into groups. The most significant classification factors are:
In accordance with the characteristics of the resources used, enterprises are divided into:
Labor-intensive enterprises are characterized by a high share of labor costs in total production costs. These enterprises tend to have a high degree of division of labor. The division of labor has both positive and negative consequences (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1
The negative consequences of specialization and division of labor led to the emergence of the concepts of humanization of labor, limitation of the division of labor, enrichment of the content of labor activity, work in groups.
Capital-intensive enterprises have especially a large number of means of production. A significant part of production costs is depreciation. Technological progress leads to specialization, mechanization and automation of production. Mechanization involves the replacement of manual labor by machines. Automation takes place in the case of the use of computer technology to control the production process. At high degree mechanization and automation of the means of production, the production process becomes insufficiently flexible, production costs increase and the enterprise is forced to solve the problem of the most efficient use of the means of production.
Material-intensive enterprises have high resource costs. These companies have to face the challenge effective use resources and environmental issues associated with the disposal of production waste.
In accordance with industry affiliation, PPs are divided into:
The most convenient location is one that provides the highest possible profit and profitability of production, all other things being equal. At the same time, we must not forget the environmental principle of the enterprise.
The choice of the location of the enterprise is determined on the basis of the following criteria:
Enterprises can be classified as small, medium or large depending on the following factors: number of employees, annual turnover, size of fixed capital, number of jobs, labor costs, use of raw materials.
The system of organizational and legal forms of economic activity used today in Russia, introduced mainly by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, includes 2 forms of entrepreneurship without education legal entity, 7 kinds commercial organizations and 7 types non-profit organizations.
At its core, it is quite close to the systems operating in many European and other countries (France, Germany, Spain, etc., to a lesser extent - Great Britain, the USA, Japan).
Rice. 1.1. Organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurship in Russia
The main goal (mission) of the creation and operation of the enterprise is to obtain the maximum possible profit through the sale of manufactured products (work performed, services rendered) to consumers, on the basis of which the social and economic needs of the labor collective and owners of the means of production are satisfied.
On the basis of the general mission of the enterprise, general company goals are formed and set, which are determined by the interests of the owner, the amount of capital, the situation within the enterprise, the external environment and must meet the following requirements: to be specific and measurable, time-oriented, accessible and mutually supported.
Each enterprise is a complex production and economic system with multifaceted activities. The most clearly distinguished areas that should be attributed to the main ones are:
1) comprehensive market research (marketing activities);
2) innovative activity(research and development work, the introduction of technological, organizational, managerial and other innovations in production);
3) production activity(manufacture of products, performance of works and provision of services, development of a range and assortment adequate to market demand);
4) commercial activity enterprises in the market (organization and promotion of sales of manufactured products, services, effective advertising);
5) material and technical support of production (supply of raw materials, materials, components, provision of all types of energy, machinery, equipment, containers, etc.);
6) economic activity enterprises (all types of planning, pricing, accounting and reporting, organization and remuneration of labor, analysis of economic activity, etc.);
7) after-sales service for production, technical and consumer products ( commissioning works, warranty service, provision of spare parts for repairs, etc.);
8) social activity (maintaining the working and living conditions of the workforce at an appropriate level, creating a social infrastructure of the enterprise, including its own residential buildings, canteens, health-improving and children's preschool institutions, vocational schools, etc.).
T.A. Frolova Accounting Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2010.
Topic 1. ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTING AT THE ENTERPRISE 1.1. The history of the emergence and development of accounting 1.2. Essence, goals and objectives of accounting 1.3. Normative regulation of accounting 1.4. Accounting systems and principles 1.5. Organization accounting at the enterprise Topic 2. ACCOUNTING FOR FIXED ASSETS 2.1. Classification and evaluation of fixed assets 2.2. Accounting for the receipt of fixed assets 2.3. Accounting for depreciation of fixed assets 2.4. Accounting for the repair of fixed assets 2.5. Accounting for the disposal of fixed assets 2.6. Accounting for leased fixed assets 2.7. OS re-evaluation Topic 3. ACCOUNTING FOR INTANGIBLE ASSETS 3.1. concept intangible assets 3.2. Synthetic accounting of intangible assets 3.3. Accounting for depreciation of intangible assets 3.4. Accounting for the disposal of intangible assets Topic 4. ACCOUNTING FOR INDUSTRIAL INVENTORIES 4.1. Classification and evaluation of inventories 4.2. Synthetic accounting of inventories 4.3. Documentation on accounting for the movement of inventories Topic 5. ACCOUNTING FOR PRODUCTION COSTS 5.1. Classification of production costs 5.2. Synthetic cost accounting for production 5.3. Synthetic accounting of business expenses 5.4. Grouping costs for costing Topic 6 6.1. Accounting for personnel employed and the use of working time 6.2. Synthetic accounting of payroll calculations 6.3. The procedure for calculating the average daily earnings and accrual of vacation pay 6.4. The procedure for calculating benefits for temporary disability, pregnancy and childbirth 6.5. Accounting for deductions from wages 6.6. Accounting for settlements social insurance and ensure Topic 7. ACCOUNTING FOR FINISHED PRODUCTS, GOODS AND THE SALES PROCESS 7.1. Synthetic accounting of finished products 7.2. Accounting for the sale of products (works, services) and settlements with buyers 7.3. Inventory of finished products 7.4. Accounting for goods and their sale Topic 8. ACCOUNTING FOR CASH AND FINANCIAL INVESTMENTS 8.1. Accounting cash transactions 8.2. Accounting for funds on the current account 8.3. Accounting for funds in foreign currency accounts 8.4. Accounting for operations on special accounts 8.5. Accounting financial investments Topic 9. ACCOUNTING FOR SETTLEMENT OPERATIONS 9.1. Accounting for settlements with suppliers and contractors 9.2. Accounting for credits and loans 9.3. Accounting for taxes and fees 9.4. Accounting for settlements with accountable persons 9.5. Accounting for settlements with personnel for other operations 9.6. Accounting for settlements with founders 9.7. Accounting for settlements with different debtors and creditors Topic 10. FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE ACCOUNTING 10.1. Financial result from implementation 10.2. Financial result from other activities 10.3. Profit (loss) accounting Topic 11. ACCOUNTING STATEMENTS OF THE ENTERPRISE 11.1. The procedure for organizing work upon completion fiscal year 11.2. Content financial statements List of bibliographic sources Appendix 1. Chart of accounts
The history of accounting goes back almost six thousand years and dates back to the 4th century BC. The emergence of accounting is associated with human economic activity. During the first millennia, the development unigraphic accounting (simple accounting), which reproduced the facts of economic life in the units of measurement in which they arose.
Simple bookkeeping evolved in five stages:
1) inventory accounting;
2) current account;
3) money that is the object of accounting;
4) money as an object of accounting merged, taking into account the calculations;
5) money and counter-current have swallowed up inventory accounting.
Simple accounting was a system of continuous and systematic monitoring of the course of the economic process. It made it possible to create a unified accounting system and take control of all material and cash, as well as calculations.
But this system had a number of disadvantages:
There was no mirror reflection in accounting;
The principle of approximation was used;
Accounting was of a registration nature;
The legal and economic meaning of all the facts cited in it was not disclosed;
Accounting tools were not used to determine profit;
There were no totals to control the correctness of the accounts.
5000 years before the advent of the double entry system, the Assyrian, Babylonian and Sumerian civilizations flourished in Mesopotamia, whose commercial documents are the oldest. prospered, Agriculture, and in the cities and adjacent areas of Mesopotamia, the service industry and production developed. There were several banking houses in Mesopotamia, which, according to gold and silver standards, issued loans for transactions.
In that era (before 500 BC), Sumer was a theocratic state, and its rulers, on behalf of the gods, disposed of most of the land and livestock. This encouraged record keeping.
Laws of Hammurabi, adopted in Babylon in the 23rd century BC. e., in particular, they required that a sales agent, selling goods on behalf of the owner, provide the latter with a certificate of the transaction price. Otherwise, their contract was automatically terminated. Both parties kept records of most transactions. The role of an accountant in Mesopotamia was played by a scribe. He not only took care of accounting, but also ensured compliance with detailed requirements law for the deal. Hundreds of scribes worked in temples, palaces and private firms. This profession was considered prestigious.
When concluding a deal, the parties, as a rule, turned to one of the scribes at the gates of the city and explained to him the essence of the agreement. The scribe took a piece of specially prepared fresh clay, which was given the form of a table of the appropriate size (depending on the transaction), and with a sharpened wooden stick wrote on it the names of the parties to the contract, the name of the goods, the amounts, obligations of the parties and other circumstances of the case.
The parties "signed" the table, applying their seals. This "signature" was worn around the neck in the form of a stone amulet engraved with the sign of the owner. Often the seal contained the owner's name and religious symbols, such as images and the names of the gods to whom he prayed.
Having sealed the deal with seals, the scribe dried the table in the sun or in an oven. Sometimes a second layer of clay was applied to the table with an envelope. On this external "crust" all data of the transaction were duplicated. The original document inside could not be changed without cracking the "envelope".
Government accounting in ancient Egypt developed according to the Mesopotamia scenario, although the replacement of clay with papyrus made it possible to make it more detailed. Records were kept in great detail, especially in the vaults of the pharaohs, where taxes received "in kind" were placed.
A complex audit system made it possible to check the integrity of Egyptian bookkeepers. The ancient accountants had to be as honest and attentive as possible, since disclosed violations were punished with a fine, cutting off a part of the body, or even death.
But the ancient Egyptian accounting for its entire thousand-year history did not go beyond simple lists. The reasons for this were illiteracy and the lack of a system of monetary circulation.
In ancient China, accounting was the primary means of assessing the effectiveness of government programs and the integrity of the officials who carried them out. During the reign of the Zhao dynasty (1122 - 256 BC), an accounting system arose and developed, which lasted until the adoption of double entry (until the 19th century).
In the 1st century BC e. Emperor Ai-Dee carried out an accounting reform, trying to prevent the process of ruin of small proprietors. The functions of an accountant began to be performed by a state official who was appointed to a position based on the results of a system of state examinations, regardless of origin. Reporting was carried out in duplicate and annually handed over for storage to the central archive. There was a practice of unannounced revisions and cross-checks.
In Greece already in the 5th century BC. e. public control over state monetary resources was provided by "independent accountants". Members of the National Assembly of Athens managed finances, controlled public revenues and expenditures. Their work was checked by 10 accountants appointed by the Assembly.
The most important contribution of the Greeks is the introduction of minted coins (about 600 BC). Money did not immediately gain popularity, but played an important role in the evolution of accounting. banking in ancient greece was more developed than in other states. Bankers kept account books, changed money, issued loans, even made money transfers to citizens through bank branches in other cities.
In ancient Rome, state and bank records arose from the records that were traditionally kept by heads of families. The income and expenses of the house were recorded daily in a "draft" (adversarius), and the totals were transferred monthly to the main ledger - the "compilation of income and expenses" (codex accepti et expensi). Such accounting was necessary because citizens had to regularly submit information about their property and obligations. These data were used for taxation purposes; civil rights (property qualification) were determined on their basis.
Control over the movement of government funds was provided by a complex system of checks. The management of the treasury, supervision of state accounting was carried out by quaestors. Auditors regularly checked the treasury accounts.
One of the goals of the transition from a republic to an empire was the desire to put finances under tight control and increase the profitability of wars of conquest. Julius Caesar personally audited the finances of Rome, and the Divine Augustus completely reformed the treasury.
One of the Roman accounting innovations was the adoption annual budget. In addition, the amount of taxes depended on the solvency of citizens.
In the Middle Ages (since 476), accounting from a centralized one again became local. Property management required trust, and the main task of the feudal lord in the field of accounting was to control the hired manager. But the traditions of Roman accounting continued to be preserved. The concept of Roman law and the emergence of commercial (economic) law contributed to the growth of accuracy and legal validity of accounts.
In the second millennium merchants began to create intermediary courts. They developed certain requirements for records: the chronological order of records, the absence of gaps in the ledgers between records, each transaction is documented, and so on.
In the Middle Ages, two main areas of accounting are formed: cameral and simple accounting.
cameral proceeded from the fact that the main object of accounting was cash, expected receipts, as well as payments from it. All receipts and payments of funds were subject to registration, and income and expenses were established in advance.
Simple bookkeeping assumed the accounting of property, including cash, and income and expenses became required for the accountant. All property accounts were kept according to the debit-credit principle, but own funds accounts were not yet included in the information accounting system.
During the Renaissance, the simple marks of the Romans no longer satisfied the new needs of trade: new forms of accounts appeared and were studied in banks, new combinations began to be applied to records. New forms were first used by Italian merchants, since Italy at that time was not only an intellectual center, but also a center of world trade. The development of accounting was also facilitated by the great invention of the 15th century - printing.
The transition to a new stage of accounting was the emergence of a double (debit-credit) entry. Scientific development of the law of double entry of business transactions and different ways its use originated in the Middle Ages.
In 1494 double entry system described by a mathematician, a Franciscan monk, a friend of Leonardo da Vinci - Luca Pacioli in the eleventh treatise "On accounts and records" of the ninth section of the work "The sum of arithmetic, geometry, the doctrine of proportions and relations." Later the system will be called "Old Italian".
In his treatise, Luca Pacioli, by analyzing business transactions and already existing methods of keeping books (memorial, journal, general ledger and inventory book), described the law of double entry and showed that, based on it, an expedient system of accounts and books can be built in any economy.
Double entry arose not in the time of Pacioli, but much earlier. Luca Pacioli only described the system that had already developed before him. Today it is reliably known that the first book that described the double entry system was the book Benedetto Cotrugli"On Trade and the Modern Merchant", handwritten in 1458, printed in 1573. Therefore, Pacioli's book is recognized by all historians of science as the first printed work that gave impetus to the development of a new accounting system.
Double entry in a more convenient and complete form reflected the economic process. The system of accounts of simple accounting was supplemented with accounts of own funds, and material accounts received monetary value, as a result of which all the facts of economic life began to be reflected twice. The appearance of operational accounts, which in a conditional form recorded changes and movements of funds, made it possible to establish a systematic observation of such quantities as capital and profit. Accounts gave accountants the opportunity to move from simple monetary accounting to accounting for all objects and transactions in monetary terms. Double entry, having become an integral part of accounting, has turned all accounting into a coherent system that facilitates control over both the preservation of values and their management.
Pacioli formulated two goals of accounting:
1) obtaining information about the state of affairs, because accounting should be kept in such a way “that it is possible to receive any information without delay, both regarding debts and claims”;
2) the calculation of the financial result, because "the purpose of the merchant is to acquire the allowable appropriate benefit for his maintenance."
Both goals of accounting are achieved with the help of accounts and double entry.
Appearance balance sheet simultaneously with double entry in the initial period was dictated by narrow practicality, the desire to reduce all accounting to form. The characteristic features of this period in the history of accounting were the absence of theoretical generalizations developed by practice; the inability of the authors to understand the essence of the phenomena taking place in connection with the economic life of this or that state.
The second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century became, in essence, a stage in the formation of accounting as a science. This was largely facilitated by the emergence of large-scale industry, the development of communications, an increase in the turnover of world trade, the emergence of a market valuable papers, which dramatically increased the number of participants in market relations - external users of accounting information. During this period, in most European countries, accounting legislation began to take shape, an integral part of which was the balance sheet and income statement. The legislation of many countries obliges entrepreneurs to publish their financial statements in order to reduce the amount of risk on the part of shareholders, investors and other external users.
Double-entry bookkeeping, which originated in Italy, began to spread to the north of Europe, first to France and Germany, then to England and Scandinavia, then west to Spain, and finally across the Atlantic Ocean to America, and to the east it came through Poland to Russia ( in the XVIII century), and then to China and Japan.
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3. Ways of processing economic information
Topic 2. ANALYSIS OF THE FINANCIAL STATE OF THE ENTERPRISE
1. Analysis of changes in the composition and structure of assets and liabilities of the balance sheet of the enterprise
2. Assessment of solvency
3. Credit rating
4. Assessment of financial stability
5. Analysis of balance sheet liquidity
Topic 3. ANALYSIS OF THE VOLUME OF PRODUCTION AND SALES OF PRODUCTS
1. Analysis of the volume and structure of output
2. Analysis of the fulfillment of contractual obligations and sales of products
3. Analysis of production growth reserves
4. Break-even analysis and financial safety margin assessment
Topic 4. ANALYSIS OF WORKING CAPITAL
1. Analysis of the effectiveness of the use of working capital
2. Analysis of the impact of the efficiency of the use of material resources on the amount of material costs
3. Analysis of the availability of material resources
Topic 5. ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF FIXED PRODUCTION ASSETS
1. Analysis of the movement of the OPF
2. Analysis of the effectiveness of the use of BPF
Topic 6. ANALYSIS OF THE WORK RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISE
1. Analysis of the provision of the enterprise with labor resources
2. Analysis of the use of working time
3. Labor productivity analysis
Topic 7. ANALYSIS OF COST AND PROFIT
1. Product cost analysis
2. Profit analysis
Subject economic analysis are economic processes, their socio-economic efficiency and final financial results activities that are formed under the influence of factors and reflected through the system of economic information.
On the economic activity influenced by objective and subjective (internal) factors. Internal are connected with human activity and depend on it.
Tasks of economic analysis:
1) increasing the scientific and economic feasibility of business plans, standards;
2) an objective and comprehensive study of the implementation of business plans and compliance with regulations;
3) determination of the effectiveness of the use of labor, material and financial resources;
4) control over the implementation of the requirements of commercial accounting;
5) identification of internal reserves;
6) checking the optimality of management decisions.
Depending on the management functions, the analysis is divided into:
§ internal (managerial, component management accounting);
§ external (financial, for external users).
Internal management analysis- an integral part of management accounting, i.e. information and analytical support for the management of the enterprise.
External the financial analysis - component financial accounting, serving external users with information about the enterprise according to data, as a rule, public reporting.
prospective (preliminary) analysis;
retrospective (subsequent);
operational analysis.
The analysis is classified according to:
Subjects (management, suppliers, tax authorities);
Periodicity (quarterly, annual);
Methods of studying the object (complex, systemic, comparative, continuous and selective);
Degrees of mechanization and automation of computational work.
The analysis of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise is carried out not only by the managers and relevant services of the enterprise, but also by its founders, investors - in order to study the efficiency of the use of resources; banks - to assess lending conditions and determine the degree of risk; suppliers - for timely receipt of payments; tax services- to fulfill the plan of receipt of funds to the budget.
A method is a way of approaching the study of reality, a way of studying nature and society. The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes is methodology of economic analysis.
At each stage, certain analytical techniques and methods are applied. So, in the primary processing of information, methods of grouping indicators, comparison, graphical representation of the analyzed information, calculation of relative and average values are used. The study of the state and patterns of development of the objects under study is carried out using statistical methods for analyzing time series.
The scientific approach allows us to distinguish 3 groups of methods:
1. General economic (comparison, graphical, balance linking, chain substitutions, arithmetic differences, logarithmic);
2. Statistical (average and relative values, processing of time series, index, correlation, dispersion analysis);
3. Mathematical (matrix, the theory of interbranch balance, the theory of production functions, linear and non-linear programming, the theory of graphs, games).
According to the nature of the relationship, the methods of deterministic and stochastic methods are distinguished. factor analysis.
Functionally deterministic connection- a relationship in which each value of the factor attribute corresponds to a well-defined non-random value of the resultant attribute.
Stochastic (probabilistic) connection- a relationship in which each value of the factor attribute corresponds to a set of values of the resulting attribute.
According to the type of communication, analytical techniques are divided into:
1. Methods of deterministic factor analysis (chain substitutions, the method of relative and absolute differences, the simple addition of an indecomposable remainder, weighted finite differences, logarithmic, integral, index, equity method);
2. Methods of stochastic factor analysis (correlation, dispersion, multivariate, cluster).
Lecture notes on the course "Economic theory"
Frolova T.A. 2014
Part I 3
Topic 1. INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMIC THEORY 3
1. Subject, goals and objectives economic theory 3
2. Needs, resources and choices 6
3. Economic circuit 8
4. Production possibilities curve 9
5. Methodology and methods of economic theory 10
Topic 2. ECONOMIC SYSTEMS AND THE ROLE OF THE STATE 13
1. Economic systems 13
2. Economic functions states 14
Topic 3. MARKET ECONOMY 16
1. The essence of the market 16
2. Structure of the market, its functions 17
3. Market economy 18
Topic 4. DEMAND AND SUPPLY 18
1. Law of demand 18
2. Law of supply 19
3. Equilibrium price 20
4. Cobweb pattern 22
5. Elasticity of supply and demand 22
Topic 5. THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 25
1. The concept of utility 25
2. Indifference curve and budget constraint 27
3. The income-consumption curve and the price-consumption curve 28
4. Income effect and substitution effect 29
5. Complementarity and interchangeability of goods and services 30
Topic 6. THEORY OF PRODUCTION 31
1. Production and factors of production 31
2. Law of diminishing marginal productivity 33
3. Production costs and profit 34
4. Break-Even Condition and Profit Maximization 38
Topic 7. TYPES OF MARKET STRUCTURES 42
1. Classification of market structures 42
2. Perfect competition 44
3. Monopoly 48
4. Monopolistic competition 50
5. Oligopoly 51
6. Antitrust Law and regulation 55
Topic 8. LABOR MARKET. INCOME DISTRIBUTION 56
1. Demand and supply of labor 56
2. The role of trade unions in the labor market 58
3. Economic rent and income distribution 59
Topic 9. CAPITAL AND LAND MARKETS 61
1. Capital and loan interest 61
2. Supply and demand for land 62
3. Land rent 63
PART II 63
Topic 1. MACROECONOMICS: SUBJECT AND FEATURES 63
1. Emergence of macroeconomic theory 63
2. The subject of macroeconomics 64
3. Features of macroeconomic analysis 66
Topic 2. PUBLIC REPRODUCTION 68
1. The concept of social reproduction 68
2. Circulation of income and products in the economic system 69
Topic 3. MACROECONOMIC INDICATORS 72
1. Indicators of the system of national accounts 72
2. Methods for calculating GNP 74
3. Basic macroeconomic identities 76
4. General economic equilibrium 79
Topic 4. ECONOMIC CYCLES, UNEMPLOYMENT AND INFLATION 80
1. The concept of the economic cycle, phases of the cycle 80
2. Views economic cycles and their reasons 82
3. Features of economic cycles 86
4. The concept and types of unemployment 87
5. Consequences of unemployment and regulation of the unemployment rate 90
6. Essence and types of inflation 93
7. Sources of inflation 96
8. Relationship between inflation and unemployment 100
9. Consequences of inflation, methods of fighting inflation 102
Topic 5. GENERAL MACROECONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM: AD-AS MODEL 105
1. Aggregate demand 105
2. Aggregate supply 108
3. Classical equilibrium model 110
4. Keynesian equilibrium model 111
Topic 6. MACROECONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM IN THE COMMODITY MARKET 112
1. Functions of consumption, savings and investment 112
2. Equilibrium in the simplest Keynes model and a simple multiplier 116
4. The income-expenditure model and the determination of the equilibrium NNP 118
5. Disbalance 120
6. Accelerator 123
Topic 7. FINANCIAL POLICY 123
1. Objectives of fiscal policy and its tools 123
2. Types of fiscal policy 124
3. Impact of fiscal policy on supply 128
4. Advantages and disadvantages of fiscal policy 130
Topic 8. STATE BUDGET 131
1. Structure state budget 131
2. Budget deficit and surplus 133
3. State debt and methods of its repayment 137
4. Essence, functions and types of taxes 139
Topic 9. MONEY MARKET 142
1. Essence and functions of money 142
2. Demand for money 145
3. Offer of money, issue of money 147
4. Equilibrium on money market 152
Topic 10. MONETARY POLICY 153
1. Credit and banking system countries 153
2. The process of creating money by banks 156
3. Goals and tools monetary policy 157
4. Stabilization policy 162
5. Nominal and real interest rate 162
Topic 11. MACROECONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM IN THE COMMODITY AND MONEY MARKET (IS-LM MODEL) 163
1. The commodity market and the IS 163 curve
2. Money market and LM 164 curve
3. Equilibrium in the IS-LM 165 model
4. Relative effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policy 166
Topic 12. ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 171
1. Concept, types and factors economic growth 171
2. Keynesian models of economic growth 173
3. Neoclassical Solow Model 175
Topic 13. INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM AND EXCHANGE RATE 179
1. International monetary system 179
2. Exchange rates and their types 181
3. Foreign trade and trade policy 187
4. Balance of payments 190
The definition of the subject of economic theory or "economics" as a scientific discipline has undergone significant changes in the course of historical development. Initially emerging in ancient society as "economy" - the science of home economics or household, in the medieval period, the economy in many ways turned into a science of wealth, into a science of activities related to the exchange and monetary transactions between people.
But, of course, neither the ancient world, nor medieval society possessed economic theory in the strict sense of the word: economic knowledge was in the nature of normative (i.e., prescribing a certain line of behavior) ideas about certain aspects of human activity.
Only the 18th century was marked by the appearance of the first holistic economic concept, not only prescriptive, but also analytical. However, the transformation of economics over the centuries that have passed since then into a mature scientific discipline has not led to a complete unification of points of view on what constitutes the subject of economic theory.
In the XVIII century. A number of economists, including Coquelin, expressed the idea that the subject of political economy (economic theory) is the social relations created by labor and the laws to which this labor is subject. It was most widely used among Russian economists of the early 20th century. G.V. Plekhanov did a lot for this. He not only defined the subject of political economy as the science of the development of production relations, but also made a significant refinement, distinguishing between the actual production relations - socio-economic, property, property relations, and production-organizational relations related to social organization. productive forces, and highlighting the contradictions within the system of social relations of production.
The representatives of the first school of political economy - mercantilists, reflecting the interests of merchants of the era of primitive accumulation of capital, the subject of scientific research was wealth. Trade was declared the source of wealth, while wealth itself was more often identified by them with money.
The school of physiocrats transferred the subject of political economy, national wealth, from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production. This was the greatest achievement of economic science, although they erroneously considered only agriculture to be the source of "wealth".
Representatives of the English classical school of political economy expanded its subject to study the conditions of production and accumulation (A. Smith), as well as the distribution (D. Ricardo) of national wealth created in all industries material production, which included: industry, construction, agriculture, forestry, etc.
A similar opinion about the subject of political economy is shared by some modern Western economists, considering it as the science of the production, distribution and consumption of national wealth. But the understanding of the latter has changed in the process of the historical development of economic thought. Initially, national wealth was represented in the form of money, then as the result of production, and today the national wealth includes the person himself, his intellect, information as the sources of the future society.
In the well-known textbook by P. Samuelson "Economics", among the many definitions of the subject of economic theory, it is indicated that economics is the science of everyday business life and people's activities.
Even earlier, A. Marshall defined the subject of economic theory, or political economy, as the study of the normal life of human society: the study of wealth and partly of a person, more precisely, incentives for action and motives for opposition. This definition emphasizes the role of man in the economy.
In modern economic literature, the understanding of the subject of economic theory as the study of "rarity", limited resources is widespread. Thus, J. Robinson writes that political economy is a science that studies people's behavior as a connection between ends and limited means that have alternative ways of application.
All definitions of economic theory as a science reveal its subject from different angles, because various aspects of human life, including economic ones, are taken as the basis, which does not allow giving it a short and at the same time comprehensive definition.
However, if we take into account that most modern economists recognize economic theory as a universal science about the problems of resource selection and human economic behavior, then the definition of economic theory given by A.I. Dobrynin.
General economic theory is a social science that studies the behavior of people and groups in the production, distribution and consumption of material goods in order to meet the needs of limited resources which creates competition for their use.
Economic theory studies the interaction of people in the process of finding effective ways to use limited production resources in order to meet the material needs of society. This definition contains features that are inevitable in almost any such definition:
Economic theory structurally includes microeconomics(behavior of individual economic entities) and macroeconomics(behavior or functioning of the national economic system generally). It also includes mesoeconomics(behavior of certain subsystems national economy or industries National economy) and supermacroeconomics(the behavior of the world economy as a whole).
When studying the subject of economic theory, in order to understand it more clearly, it is advisable to single out:
Normative economics is a direction in economics based on value judgments about what the economy should be, goals economic development and economic policy.
Positive economics means an analysis of the facts on the basis of which the principles of economic behavior are formulated.
The specificity of economics as a social science is also manifested in the fact that, unlike exact (natural) disciplines, it is impossible to experiment in it, confirming or refuting theoretical constructions. The reason for this is the impossibility of accurately taking into account the diversity of national, geographical, historical, psychological characteristics that ultimately determine the result of a particular economic impact. The impossibility of taking into account all the factors that determine the result makes the possibility of their reproduction all the more unrealistic.
But with all this, the economy gives an understanding of the general dependencies of the functioning of the economic system, allows you to answer a number of questions:
1) which is preferable: the introduction of quantitative restrictions on imports from
2) how the introduction of taxes or the allocation of subsidies will affect the price level;
3) how the activities of trade unions affect the labor market, change
production technology, etc.
At the same time, the wording of the answers will be less rigid than in the natural sciences, but they will characterize the general direction of economic processes quite fully. tool for obtaining this kind of results in economic research are economic models.
Theoretical economics teaches to understand complex economic world, generates economic type thinking. Economic thinking means making rational decisions based on a comparison of costs and benefits.
Economic theory is the methodological foundation of a whole complex of sciences: sectoral (economics of trade, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); intersectoral ( economical geography demography, statistics, etc.).
Economic theory is one of the social sciences, along with history, philosophy, law, etc. It is designed to reveal one part of social phenomena in human life, and only a combination of theoretical, social and historical sciences is able to explain the functioning of social life.
Economic theory takes into account the knowledge embedded in specific economic sciences, as well as sociology, psychology, history, etc., without taking into account which the conclusions it draws may turn out to be erroneous.
The connection of economic theory with other economic sciences in the very general view can be represented in the form of the following diagram (Fig. 1.1).
Fig.1.1. Relationship of economic theory with economic sciences
Practical significance economic theory (the well-known formula of O. Comte) is that knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight leads to action. Economic theory must underlie economic policy, and through it - to permeate the field of economic practice. Action (practice) leads to knowledge, knowledge leads to foresight, foresight leads to right action. The course of economic theory is a guide to the knowledge of economic reality without declaring a monopoly on truth.
In the economy, as in any other area of social life and in nature, through external chaos and a heap of accidents, the regularity of development makes its way. Economic processes in society are governed by internal laws inherent in them - the laws of social actions of people, or economic laws. Law and essence are homogeneous concepts and express a person's in-depth knowledge of the phenomena occurring in the world. The phenomenon is wider, richer than the law, but the law captures the inner essence of the phenomenon.
Law is a stable, durable, repeatedly repeating phenomenon and expression of an internal, essential, necessary, causal, constant, universal, qualitative and quantitative relationship (relationship) inherent in a given phenomenon or process.
Economic laws in their totality form system of economic laws of society development which includes various groups and types of laws.
Economic laws are classified into the following groups (depending on their historical stability):
1) specific economic laws - These are the laws of development of specific, historically defined forms of management. For example, the laws of distribution under slavery, serfdom, etc.;
2) special economic laws - these are the laws characteristic of those historical epochs where the conditions for their operation are preserved. For example, the law of value (value);
3) general economic laws - laws characteristic of all historical epochs without exception. They express the progressive process of development of social production. For example, the law of saving time, the law of the rise (increase) of needs, the law of the distribution of social labor.
Economic laws by themselves, however, do not work, economic progress is not automatically carried out. This requires the actions of people, and they are set in motion by their needs and interests.
Economic theory (political economy) studies not only objective, but also subjective forms of manifestation of existing objective social and production relations, not only specific forms of manifestation of economic interests, but also their clash, reflecting internal contradictions and the struggle of opposites, as well as the ability to resolve them.
