Capitalism, like any social system, is not something dead and ossified. It moves, improves, passing through different stages of its development. Its initial stages - formation and strengthening were studied by the greatest thinkers in the history of mankind K. Marx and F. Engels. But they could not explore the final stage of the development of capitalism - capitalism passed to this stage later, after their death. The study of the new stage of capitalism was undertaken by their student V.I. Lenin, who, analyzing capitalism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, found that it had significantly changed its character, turning from a progressive social system into a reactionary one. Capitalism has acquired new features that were not previously observed in it, and many of its laws began to operate in a completely different way. This new, last stage of capitalism was called by him "imperialism", and V.I. Lenin's work "Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism" is fundamental on the issue of imperialism.
So what is imperialism? How does it differ from ordinary capitalism, and what features is it characterized by?
Imperialism- this is the aggressive or predatory policy of finance capital in its struggle for markets for goods, for raw materials and fuel markets, for the most profitable investment of capital in other countries and for acquiring cheaper labor power in them, by subjugating these countries and their peoples and creating thereby huge world states, empires. Imperialism thus grows out of finance capital and is closely linked with it.
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin wrote that "Imperialism is the eve of the social revolution of the proletariat" this is the last stage of capitalism, i.e. capitalism is dying, decaying. He is inevitably replaced a new one will come social system is communism.
Example: The capitalism of modern Russia is also in the stage of dying capitalism, i.e. imperialism (see) Moreover, Russian capitalism also contains all the signs of state-monopoly capitalism, which is a more developed form of monopoly capitalism, when the power of capitalist monopolies is closely connected with the power of the state for the purposes of preservation and strengthening of the capitalist system.
When did imperialism emerge?
It appeared at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. “Private property based on the labor of the small proprietor, free competition, democracy—all these slogans with which the capitalists and their press deceive the workers and peasants are far behind us. Capitalism has grown into a worldwide system of colonial oppression and financial suffocation by a handful of "advanced" countries of the gigantic majority of the world's population. And the division of this “booty” takes place between 2-3 world-powerful predators, armed from head to toe, who draw the whole earth into their war because of the division of their booty., - wrote V.I. Lenin
Imperialism has 5 characteristics:
1. concentration of production and the formation of monopolies,
2. financial capital (i.e., the merger of banking capital with industrial capital) and financial oligarchy,
3. the export of capital prevails over the export of goods,
4. the formation of international monopoly unions of capitalists who divided the world among themselves,
5. completed the territorial division of the world between the major capitalist powers.
The most important sign of imperialism is education monopolies and financial capital who in this era subordinate everything and everyone to their influence.
The first sign of imperialism is monopoly:
Monopolies is the unification of individual capitalist enterprises, often even from different branches of industry or the economy, into one whole, into a single huge enterprise.
The word "monopoly" has 2 meanings:
1. Monopolies are called several major players dominating the market, emerging as a result of competition.
2. The policy of these associations of capitalists is also called a monopoly. For example, "monopoly prices",
Recall how monopolies are formed (we already talked about it in the last lesson): “Concentration, at a certain stage of its development, by itself brings close to monopoly. For it is easy for several dozen gigantic enterprises to come to an agreement among themselves, and on the other hand, the difficulty of competition, the tendency to monopoly, is generated precisely by the large size of the enterprises. This transformation of competition into monopoly is one of the most important phenomena, if not the most important, in the economy of modern capitalism.(Lenin).
The formation of monopolies is general and basic law of modern capitalism
Example: The development of monopolies began with the unification of metallurgical plants and hard coal mines, where coal was mined, without which metal smelting is impossible. Then these associations also included mining enterprises that were engaged in the extraction of metal ores.
An example from the realities of modern Russia- Deripaska recently announced the purchase of a thermal power plant located next to the Bogoslovsky aluminum smelter. Recall that the production of aluminum is a very energy-intensive industry. Now Deripaska will have his own electricity generation.
What is it for? What are the benefits of such associations?
They give a higher and more sustainable return on investment.
firstly, trade disappears within the united enterprises and other production costs are reduced; - in fact, a plan is being introduced inside the monopolies (!!!),
secondly, in times of competition and crises, the unification of enterprises allows all of them to stand on their own feet more firmly than in the case of fragmentation in the form of individual enterprises,
thirdly, it is possible to carry out a better division of labor and introduce various technical improvements.
Forms of association of enterprises can be different - it can only be an agreement on joint activities or even their complete unification through absorption or merger. This is the way to form monopolies.
Depending on the type of association, there are different types monopolies - cartels, syndicates, trusts, joint-stock companies, transnational corporations.
Example: The process of formation of monopolies in bourgeois Russia took place in the previous two decades right before our eyes. Many people remember that not so long ago, in the 90s. in most industries of the Russian Federation and the national economy, there were many enterprises, from small to large. In the same oil industry, where colossal money is spinning, there was a sea of all sorts of intermediaries trading in various volumes of oil products - from a tank to hundreds of trains. All of them were destroyed by competition. A good example is the Yukos case. Now there are only a few companies left in the oil industry, including the trade in raw materials and oil products. They can be counted on the fingers - Rosneft, Lukoil, TNK-BP and several others. These are the monopolies that completely determine the Russian oil market.
Similarly, the gas market of the Russian Federation, where the semi-state Gazprom reigns supreme.
Another example is the sale of consumer goods. Lots of outlets- from kiosks to large stores in the 90s and early 2000s, everyone remembers. Now, instead of thousands of small traders, the consumer goods market has clearly taken control of retail chains, and a significant number of them are foreign - Auchan, Okay, Lenta, Ikea, Mega, Magnit, Pyaterochka, Monetka, etc.
With the advent of monopolies, the character of capitalism fundamentally changes - from progressive it becomes regressive, reactionary. The monopolies are complete masters of the market and have the widest opportunity to impose their prices on the buyers. Competition disappears - it is replaced by a special kind of policy, when dominance in the market by some requires subordination from others (monopoly policy, or monopoly).
“The relationship of domination and the violence associated with it is what is typical of the “recent phase in the development of capitalism”, this is what inevitably had to result and did result from the formation of omnipotent economic monopolies.- Lenin wrote
Monopoly, by killing competition, also destroys that powerful driving force which compelled the capitalists, under fear of the ruin of their enterprises and in the interests of defeating their rival rivals, to constantly develop technology, display ingenuity and enterprise, and raise the productive forces.
Under conditions of monopoly, the capitalists achieve their main goal - increasing profits and enrichment - not by improving technology, but by raising the prices of their goods, lowering the wages of workers and intensifying the exploitation of backward countries - raw material colonies. The consequence of such a policy is inevitably a delay and stagnation in the development of the productive forces. The uneven development of branches of the capitalist economy is increasing, leading to an imbalance in the entire economy of the country and the world.
Monopolies not only impose their prices, they create demand in the market - forcing you to buy unnecessary, or buy more often than was previously required. The quality of goods falls sharply, goods with a low service life flood all markets. In crises of overproduction, prices do not fall, as before, but remain at the same level - excess goods are destroyed.
Lenin says: “The elimination of crises by monopolies is a fairy tale of bourgeois economists who embellish capitalism at all costs. On the contrary, the monopoly that is created in some branches of industry intensifies and sharpens the chaotic nature of all capitalist production as a whole. The discrepancy between the development of agriculture and industry, which is characteristic of capitalism in general, is becoming even greater. The privileged position in which the most monopolized heavy industry finds itself leads in other industries "to an even more acute lack of planning" ... and consequently, to unprecedented crises, "And crises - all kinds, economic most often, but not only economic ones - in their queues in enormous proportions intensify the tendency towards concentration and towards monopoly.
It turns out a vicious circle from which there is no way out. Capitalism is becoming more and more barbaric and insane every day.
From this it becomes clear all the futility of attempts to curb monopolies - to create some kind of antimonopoly committees and similar structures that are supposedly designed to limit the undivided reign of monopolies in a particular market. In the very essence of the capitalist system, which is in the stage of imperialism, it is impossible to do this without destroying capitalism. And therefore, all these and similar antimonopoly services are nothing more than a fiction, visibility for naive fellow citizens who, not understanding how laws work market economy believe in the objectivity and justice of the bourgeois state. In fact, the task of all these antimonopoly structures is fundamentally the opposite - using the power of the bourgeois state, to defend the interests of the largest monopolies, those that are closely connected with the state, destroying and oppressing the smaller ones to please them, squeezing the latter out of the market.
Here is what Lenin writes about this: “... although commodity production still “reigns” and is considered the basis of the entire economy, in fact it has already been undermined, and the main profits go to the “geniuses” of financial tricks. The basis of these tricks and frauds is the socialization of production, but the gigantic progress of mankind, which has worked out to this socialization, is to the benefit of ... speculators.
This whole picture of the separation of financial capital from production is unfolding in the most obvious way right now before our eyes. The modern bourgeoisie has even coined the term "real production" to show that it is really about production, and not about financial speculation. Thus, she recognized that all these financial games of the world bourgeoisie - financial markets, financial instruments Mortgage papers, sucked out of your finger, etc., have nothing to do with the real economy. But it is precisely due to this virtual industry that the GDP of all developed countries of the world is now growing! Bourgeois and oligarchs of all stripes no longer want to produce anything, they don’t even want to manage their property - plants, factories, corporations, etc. They often hire top management to manage their property, actually eliminating themselves from the production process and thereby becoming an extra link in economics.
All this brings the productive forces close to the new social order, which with all inevitability must change the capitalist world order.
Here is what Lenin says about it: “This is no longer the same as the old free competition of fragmented and unaware of each other's owners, producing for sale in an unknown market. The concentration has reached such a point that it is possible to make an approximate account of all sources of raw materials in a given country and even throughout the world. Such accounting is not only carried out, but these sources are seized in one hand by gigantic monopoly unions. An approximate account is made of the size of the market, which these unions “divide” among themselves, by contractual agreement. Trained labor forces are monopolized, the best engineers are hired, and ways and means of communication are seized. Capitalism in its imperialist stage leads directly to the most comprehensive socialization of production, it drags, so to speak, the capitalists, against their will and consciousness, into some kind of new social order, transitional from complete freedom of competition to complete socialization.
Imperialism increases the division of labor in an unprecedented way; makes labor SOCIAL, when the product of production is created not by one, but by thousands and millions of workers.
Example: In production cell phones and computers, workers from almost 50 countries of the world participate! The joint work of millions of people creates what we are used to using today, without thinking about how and by whom it is all produced.
But the whole problem is that, as before, as 100 and even 200 years ago, all manufactured products belong to units - the owners of the means of production - plants, factories, mining mines, etc.
Arises the contradiction between the social nature of labor and the private form of appropriation, which can be eliminated only by a revolution whose task is to destroy the obsolete old capitalist relations and replace them with new production relations that correspond to the existing level of the productive forces of society - socialist relations.
The second important feature of imperialism is finance capital., which was mentioned above.
financial capital called the merger of banking capital with industrial capital. Banks, modest intermediaries, whose task was only to carry out settlements between industrial enterprises, to manage their accounting affairs, suddenly turn into the main link of the entire capitalist world system, dictating their will to all its other participants. This is one of the main processes that characterize the development of capitalism into imperialism.
Here is how this process takes place. “Large enterprises, banks in particular, not only directly absorb small ones, but also “attach” them to themselves, subordinate them, include them in “their” group, in their “concern” - as the technical term says - by means of “participation” in their capital, through the purchase or exchange of shares, a system of debt relations, etc.”(Lenin).
“... with the concentration of capital and the growth of banks' turnover, their significance changes radically. Scattered capitalists form one collective capitalist. By keeping a current account for several capitalists, the bank seems to be performing a purely technical, purely auxiliary operation. And when this operation grows to gigantic proportions, it turns out that a handful of monopolists subjugate the commercial and industrial operations of the entire capitalist society, gaining the opportunity - through banking connections, through current accounts and other financial transactions - first to find out exactly the state of affairs from individual capitalists, then control them, influence them by expanding or contracting, facilitating or making credit difficult, and finally completely determine their fate, determine their profitability, deprive them of capital or enable them to increase their capital quickly and on an enormous scale, etc.” Lenin explains.
In the activities of banks, one can see the germ of the process of universal accounting and distribution of the means of production, a kind of social planning, which Marx wrote about in Capital: "Banks create on a social scale a form, but precisely only a form, of a general accounting and a general distribution of the means of production." Banks carry out "general accounting" of the entire class of capitalists and not even only capitalists, for banks collect, at least for a time, cash income, and small owners, and employees, and even the lowest paid workers. They do not disdain any crumbs, receiving huge millions and billions from kopecks, with the help of which they make even more capital for themselves. Banking salary cards, to which, as we remember, absolutely everyone was forcibly transferred not so long ago in Russia, this is a perfect example.
And again, if the form of accounting and distribution of the means of production becomes general, then in terms of its content this distribution of the means of production is not at all “general”, but private, reflecting the interests of big monopoly capital, “ operating in such conditions when the mass of the population lives from hand to mouth, when the entire development of agriculture hopelessly lags behind the development of industry, and in industry "heavy industry" takes tribute from all its other branches.(Lenin).
In parallel, a close alliance of banks with the largest enterprises of industry and trade is taking shape, the merger of both through mutual ownership of shares, through the entry of bank directors into members of supervisory boards (or boards) of trade and industrial enterprises etc. This union is even more closely fused with the government, resulting in - OLIGARCHY.
“Finance capital, concentrated in a few hands and enjoying a virtual monopoly, takes a huge and ever-increasing profit from the foundation, from the issue of stock papers, from state loans, etc., consolidating the dominance of the financial oligarchy, taxing the whole of society with tribute to the monopolists.”,- Lenin writes quite rightly, and concludes: “Capitalism, which began its development with small usurious capital, ends its development with gigantic usurious capital.”
Monopoly, once it has already taken shape, with absolute inevitability permeates all aspects of the social life of a capitalist country, regardless of its political structure. The nature of the monopoly is such that the boundaries of its own country quickly become too narrow for it, and it enters the international arena with its economic interests. In this, the monopoly is actively assisted by its own state, whose foreign policy becomes just a reflection of its economic interests.
“It is characteristic of capitalism in general to separate the ownership of capital from the application of capital to production, the separation of money capital from industrial or productive capital, the separation of the rentier, who lives only on income from money capital, from the entrepreneur and all persons directly involved in the disposal of capital. Imperialism, or the domination of finance capital, is that highest stage of capitalism when this separation reaches enormous proportions. The predominance of finance capital over all other forms of capital signifies the dominance of rentiers and financial oligarchy, signifies the separation of the few states with financial "power" from all the rest.(Lenin).
But it cannot go on like this indefinitely. US default is inevitable and most likely it will happen before our eyes (some economists suggest that the next 2 years). For the world economy, this will mean a global economic and financial crisis of such magnitude that it will be quite capable of turning into a series of social revolutions in many countries of the world. Given the extreme weakness Russian economy, its high dependence on primary industries, this crisis can hit Russia the most. This means that all conditions may be created for the development of a revolutionary situation in our country. And we Communists must be prepared for such a development of events.
The third sign of imperialism is the export of capital
What does "export of capital" mean? How does this phenomenon manifest itself and how does it arise?
The growing financial capital no longer has enough exploitation and robbery within its own state. He accumulates such huge wealth that there is nowhere to put it in his own country, in the sense that finance capital does not see ways to obtain profits worthy of its attention inside the country. And to spend the accumulated funds on the population, on the working people, on improving their financial situation He, of course, is not going to. This happens not only at the level of individual companies, but also of entire countries. The monopoly position of the few richest countries, as a rule, those in which capitalism appeared earlier than others and managed to achieve a higher level of development, allows them to accumulate capital on a gigantic scale. They have a huge "surplus of capital" - both in the form of goods and in the form of money. And this capital begins to be exported to other countries.
1) Finance capital needs external markets for the sale of an ever-increasing number of different commodities. Export of goods (export) becomes an urgent necessity for highly developed capitalism.
2) As production grows, capitalism begins to lack raw materials and fuel in its own country, and it is forced to look for it in other countries, especially in backward countries (in the colonies), where natural resources are considerable, but poorly used, i.e. the pursuit of markets not only for sales, but also for raw materials is developing.
3) In the period of finance capital there is a surplus not only in commodities, but also in capitals. The rich capitalist states are unable to use within themselves the huge capitals in the hands of a small number of capitalists, and therefore the pursuit and struggle begins for other countries, where they can take their excess capitals, where they can be invested in plants, factories, etc. In the backward and poor countries the capitalist receives a greater return on invested capital than in countries with developed industry. This is explained by the fact that in the backward countries (colonies) there are many natural resources, cheap raw materials are at hand, and, most importantly, there is an abundance of cheap labor power, which creates surplus value for the capitalists.
Here is what V.I. Lenin writes about this: “Of course, if capitalism could develop agriculture, which is now everywhere terribly behind industry, if it could raise the standard of living of the masses of the population, who everywhere remain, despite dizzying technical progress, half-starved and beggarly, then there could be no excess of capital be out of the question. And such an "argument" is often put forward by the petty-bourgeois critics of capitalism. But then capitalism would not be capitalism, for both the uneven development and the semi-starvation standard of living of the masses are fundamental, inevitable conditions and prerequisites for this mode of production. As long as capitalism remains capitalism, the surplus of capital is used not to raise the standard of living of the masses in a given country, for that would be a decrease in the profits of the capitalists, but to raise profits by exporting capital abroad, to backward countries. In these backward countries profits are usually high, because capital is scarce, the price of land is comparatively low, wages are low, and raw materials are cheap. The possibility of exporting capital is created by the fact that a number of backward countries have already been drawn into the circulation of world capitalism, the main lines of railways have been built or begun, the elementary conditions for the development of industry have been provided, etc. The need for the export of capital is created by the fact that in a few countries capitalism and capital lacks (given the underdevelopment of agriculture and the poverty of the masses) the field of "profitable" premises.
Example: We can see the process of capital outflow most clearly in the example of China and the countries of Southeast Asia. World capital races to invest in these countries, and the main reason for this is a huge amount of cheap labor, billions of people who can be exploited mercilessly. The salary of workers in Southeast Asian countries is about 35-50 dollars per month! Compare it with average salary European worker in 2000-3000 euros. The difference is hundreds of times! That is why production in Europe and the USA is declining, millions of European workers are driven out into the streets, and real industrialization is taking place in the countries of Southeast Asia.
4) In backward countries, the labor force is not capricious, it has no experience of class struggle - there are no workers' organizations or they are very weak. And therefore, you can cash in on it as much as you like, predatory squeezing all the juice out of it. In addition, deindustrialization and the transfer of production to other countries is also a good bridle for their own workers, who become more submissive with rising unemployment.
Example: The last point perfectly explains the roots of labor migration in Russia. Its main reason is the horrendous unemployment in the Central Asian republics and the pursuit of profit by the Russian bourgeoisie. There will be no Central Asians, they will bring Chinese or even Negroes (there are already similar examples in Russia - a recent case in the Urals, which our media wrote about, when local entrepreneurs brought Africans). And enterprises in Russia are closed because it is more profitable for our businessmen to have such enterprises in Southeast Asian countries than in Russia, where you simply cannot survive on too low a salary - it's cold.
The financial capital of the developed capitalist countries spreads its nets to all countries of the world. An important role is played by banks and their branches established in the colonies, which gradually subjugate the entire economy of the colonies. In the colonies, capitalism begins to develop sharply, but its character is already different, not at all the same as that of the capitalism of the metropolitan countries (countries of the capitalist center) at the initial stage of its development. There is no free market, no competition - they are replaced by "connections" and agreements with the local government. Imperialism sets its own laws here too. Often, the condition for obtaining a loan for colonial countries is to spend part of it on the purchase of goods produced by the creditor country. "The export of capital abroad becomes a means of encouraging the export of goods abroad."(Lenin)
With the growth of the power of finance capital, the world is divided among the countries exporting capital.
The fourth sign of imperialism is the formation of international monopoly unions of capitalists that divide the world among themselves.
Monopolies, arising, divide the domestic market among themselves, capturing the production of a given country in their more or less complete possession. They operate in the same way in the foreign market - in the colonial countries, thus forming a world market. And as the export of capital grew, and foreign and colonial ties and the "spheres of influence" of the largest monopoly unions expanded, things "naturally" approached a worldwide agreement between them, to the formation of international monopolies. This is a new stage in the worldwide concentration of capital and production, incomparably higher than the previous ones - supermonopoly.
There is an internationalization of capital, i.e. supermonopoly includes enterprises and financial institutions different countries, and it is no longer possible to link this supermonopoly with any one country in the world. The world economy is beginning to be controlled not so much by developed capitalist countries as by supermonopolies, and the governments of various countries merely reflect economic interests these supermonopolies.
The result of the policy of supermonopolies is the constant rise in prices for all monopoly goods and the complete dependence of all countries of the world on these "kings of the economy." Thanks to the supermonopolies, social production is now being socialized on a world scale, and the very process of production within the supermonopolies is becoming not chaotic, but orderly, practically planned. But the appropriation of the produced product, as before, still remains private. The contradiction between the social nature of labor and the private form of appropriation is aggravated to the limit, and now within the framework of the whole world.
And if there is no question of competition within supermonopolies, then between supermonopolies it only intensifies, going beyond the boundaries of individual states to the world level. Global TNCs are fighting furiously among themselves in the foreign market. They divide the world "according to strength", i.e. in proportion to their capital.
Example: If 100 years ago, when the work “Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism” was written, this phenomenon - supermonopoly only manifested itself in the world economy and politics, now supermonopolies determine everything and everything in the world economy. there are the very supermonopolies that Lenin wrote about. Now they have completely divided the world market among themselves, in which almost all countries of the world are now involved. The policy of "globalism", which our media talks about so much today, is nothing but the policy of TNCs in the world market, which they have completely subordinated to their laws.
“TNCs provide more than 50% of world industrial production. TNCs account for more than 70% of world trade. Very large TNCs have a budget that exceeds the budget of some countries. Of the 100 largest economies in the world, 52 are multinational corporations, the rest are states. They have a great influence in the regions, as they have extensive financial resources, public relations, political lobbying, industrial control." (Wikipedia)
Prepared by the DRC "Working Way", 2013
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Usually, imperialism is understood as a policy of expansion, the capture of less developed countries in order to create an empire. Since politics is seen as more than an abstract desire to see one's flag flying over as much territory as possible, it is recognized that there is some economic reason for expansionist policies. Sometimes, for example, they say that this is a need for markets or raw materials, or food, or living space for the excess population.
Foreign countries can serve as excellent markets. Food and raw materials are also always available from other countries. As for the land for settlement, it is only the conditions created by capitalism that force people to leave their country, force them to look for means of subsistence somewhere in another country. Where, then, are the causes of imperialist expansion?
The first Marxist analysis of modern imperialism was given by Lenin. He emphasized that one of the specific features of imperialism is the export of capital, which is different from the export of ordinary goods; and he showed that this is the result of certain changes that have taken place in capitalism itself. Therefore, he characterized imperialism as a special stage of capitalism - a stage in which monopolies in the main capitalist countries developed on an enormous scale.
In the early period of the development of industrial capitalism, factories, mines and other enterprises were very small. As a rule, they belonged to one family group or a small group of partners who could provide the relatively small capital that was needed to establish a factory or mine. However, with each new technical discovery, more and more capital was required, while, on the other hand, the market for manufactured goods was constantly expanding - due to handicraft production - first in England and then in other countries. Therefore, the size of industrial enterprises grew rapidly. With the advent of railroads and steamboats, the iron industry began to develop, and later the steel industry, including much larger enterprises. In any branch of industry, larger enterprises were more economical, tended to expand faster, and generate greater profits. Many smaller enterprises could not compete with them, they were closed or absorbed by their more powerful rivals. Thus a twofold process was continually going on: production tended to be more and more concentrated in large enterprises, and the part of production which was under the control of a small group of the rich was constantly increasing.
Marx perfectly understood the essence of this process, which was taking place even in his time, and paid attention, firstly, to the growing technical concentration, that is, to the concentration of production in large enterprises, and secondly, to the centralization of capital owned or controlled by all a decreasing group of people. He saw that monopoly would inevitably replace free competition, and this would lead to the fact that all the difficulties inherent in capitalism would manifest themselves in a more intense form.
At the beginning of the 20th century, economists (especially Hobson in England) noted a high degree monopolization achieved by that time by many industries. In 1916, during the First World War, Lenin (in "Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism") brought together various already known facts about the growth of monopolies and drew attention to the political, social, and also purely economic features of a monopoly. Considering the events that took place after the death of Marx, he continued and developed the conclusions made by Marx. Lenin noted five main economic signs of the imperialist stage of capitalism, which, in his opinion, took shape around 1900:
1. The concentration of production and capital, which has reached such a degree that it has created monopolies that play a decisive role in economic life.
This phenomenon took place in all the advanced capitalist countries, but it was especially clear in Germany and the United States of America. This process, of course, continued to intensify to an ever-increasing degree. Great examples of this in England are such concerns as Imperial Chemical Industries, with assets of £583 million in 1958, and Unilever, with assets of £526 million in 1958. In every branch of industry, the lion's share of the total production falls on the share of several large concerns, which are usually linked by agreements on prices, quotas, etc., that is, in essence, they act as a single monopoly.
2. The merging of banking capital with industrial capital and the creation of an oligarchy of "financial capital", which in essence rules every country.
This position needs some explanation. Initially, the industrial capitalists were separated from the bankers, who were not interested at all or showed little interest in industrial enterprises, although, of course, they loaned them money and received part of the profits in the form of interest. But with the development of industry and the widespread use of "joint stock companies," bank owners also began to take part in industrial companies, and wealthier industrialists received shares in bank capital. Thus the richest capitalists, whether they were originally bankers or industrialists, became industrial bankers; it is the amalgamation of capitalist functions in the hands of one and the same group that greatly increases its power. (In England, in particular, the large landowners have also merged with this group.) Cooperating with the industrial concern with which it is thus connected, the bank can help this concern by granting money to it and issuing loans to other companies, provided that the latter will place their orders in a given concern in which the bank has its investments, etc. Thus, the financial-capitalist group is able to rapidly increase its wealth and establish monopoly control in one branch of industry after another. It goes without saying that the state is increasingly considering its opinion.
The best illustration of the merging of banks with industry is the fact that more and more directorships in a number of concerns are held by bank directors. Of course, this does not mean that the banks own these enterprises; the fact is that the powerful in the banking world are powerful in industry and trade - they form a single group of the richest people, whose capitals form the basis of the whole system of English capitalism. In 1870 directors of the banks that later formed the Big Five, and Bank of England had 157 different directorships; in 1913 they had 329 seats; in 1959, 1,176. The full significance of these figures becomes especially clear when one considers that the 1959 figures cover such concerns as Unilever and Imperial Chemical Industries, which themselves absorbed a huge number of smaller enterprises.
3. The export of capital, in contrast to the export of goods, acquires a special importance.
In the early period of capitalism, England exported textiles and other manufactured goods to various countries and, with the money received, bought local products, that is, in fact, exchanged its products for raw materials and food products needed by British industry. But in the second half of the last century, especially at the end of it, finance capital began to show more and more interest in the export of capital, not for commercial exchange, but with the aim of obtaining an annual interest on this capital. This export of capital - in the form of loans foreign countries or to companies or in the form of financing for the construction of railways, ports or mines in other countries - usually made on the condition that orders for materials, etc., be placed among the English industries with which these banks were connected. Thus, both groups of finance capital act together, each receiving very substantial profits and blocking the path of competitors.
4. International monopoly alliances of capitalists are formed, which divide the world among themselves.
This happens in the steel, oil and other industries; agreements on foreign trade quotas are concluded between monopoly groups of various countries; often there is a division of markets between groups and agreements on prices. What are the limits of these agreements, we will show below.
The territorial division of the world by the major capitalist powers has been completed. (In 1876, the European powers owned 11% of Africa, and in 1900 - 90%.)
The significance of this fact is that it was no longer possible to capture more or less defenseless countries. The financial-capitalist groups of the wealthiest states could no longer expand their spheres of influence, except at the expense of each other, that is, only through big wars for the redivision of the world in favor of the victorious country.
Of particular interest is one of the special remarks made by Lenin in this connection. It was generally believed that the goal of the expansionist aspirations of the imperialist countries was only the colonial countries. Lenin emphasized that this was not at all necessary, that this striving was of a universal nature and, under suitable conditions, its goal could be another industrial goal. developed country. The expansion of German finance capital during the years of fascism is the best example of this.
Based on this analysis, Lenin concluded that the imperialist stage of capitalism is accompanied by deep economic crises, world wars and, on the other hand, proletarian revolutions and uprisings of the oppressed peoples of the colonies and semi-colonies against exploitation by the imperialists.
The centralization of capital in the hands of small groups also means that these groups are gaining more and more power over the state machine, so that the policies of various countries become more and more closely aligned with the interests of these narrow groups. It is precisely this circumstance that makes it possible for the financial-capitalist groups of all countries to fight foreign rivals with the help of tariffs, quotas, and other state measures (and in extreme cases, with the help of war).
Why is conflict between rival groups inevitable? Why can't they agree on the division of the world among themselves?
It was noted above that the monopolistic groups of various countries enter into agreements on the division of world markets among themselves. Speaking abstractly, it would seem that this could lead to the complete disappearance of competition, to a kind of permanent international confluence of interests. But Lenin cited a number of facts showing that such international agreements are never lasting. The agreement for the division of markets, concluded in 1905, is connected with the productive power of various groups, say, English, French, German and American, at that time. However, the law of development of capitalism is the unevenness of its development. A few years after the conclusion of such an agreement, the productive power of the German, American or some other group increases, and this group is no longer content with its former share. She terminates the agreement, and if other groups do not immediately comply, a new and even sharper struggle for markets begins. Indeed, such is the fate of all such agreements; and since the law of the uneven development of capitalism applies not only to certain industrial groups, but also to the capital of various countries in general, economic agreements are, so to speak, only truces in the constant commercial war between the financial-capitalist groups of various countries.
By itself, economic war cannot solve the problem. Therefore, financial-capitalist groups, with the help of the state machine of their countries, create tariff barriers against their rivals, set import quotas, try to conclude preferential trade agreements with other countries, seek to expand the territory over which they exercise their control, and arm themselves to wage war, victory in which will give them at least a temporary advantage over their rivals.
The two world wars were, in essence, the result of the concentration of wealth in the hands of the financial-capitalist associations of each country. It is quite clear that a purely economic process - the concentration of production and capital - leads to a terrible social disaster - war. The Marxist approach to war is not pacifist. Marxism condemns imperialist wars that hinder the progress of mankind and the struggle of peoples for their liberation. Marxism sees these wars as unjust. But the wars waged by the people against imperialist conquests or for liberation from imperialist domination, Marxism considers just; this also applies to the civil wars waged by the people in order to put an end to exploitation. Only as a result of the victory of the peoples over the exploiters will the conditions conducive to the unleashing of wars be eliminated, and thus wars will be put an end to forever.
When the government of an imperialist country wages an unjust war, the working class of that country must possible means oppose the war and, if he is strong enough, overthrow the government and take power into his own hands in order to end the war and begin the movement towards socialism. This policy was pursued by the Russian workers in 1917.
The result of the competitive struggle between rival imperialist groups is a general worsening of conditions. Technical rationalization - machines that save labor - is accompanied by the intensification of labor and unemployment. To reduce costs and capture or retain markets, reduce wages. Large monopoly concerns reduce prices for agricultural products. Public services are being cut to save money for armaments and other military preparations. Economic crises are getting deeper and longer. Such is the experience of the period between the two world wars.
All these causes intensify the class struggle and the struggle of the colonial peoples against the imperialists. The imperialist stage of capitalism is an epoch not only of wars, but also of revolutions.
But there is another feature of the imperialist stage of capitalism, which Lenin pointed out in his analysis. The monopoly groups of the imperialist countries can make super profits from the exploitation of backward peoples. This is partly due to the low standard of living of these peoples, partly due to the terrible conditions imposed on them by ruthless rulers and capitalists, partly because the exchange of manufactured goods for handicrafts can be carried out at an exceptionally high rate. foreign exchange. This does not refer to money, but to actual goods. It should be remembered that the exchange value of any product is determined by the average socially necessary labor expended on its production. The socially necessary labor time, say in England, for the production of a meter of cloth with the help of machines may amount to only 1/10 or 1/20 of the time spent on the production of a meter of cloth on a hand loom. But when factory-made cloth is imported into India, it is equal in value to a meter of Indian cloth, i.e., its exchange value in India is much higher than in England. If the raw material and other Indian articles of higher value are in turn sent to England and sold, a much greater profit will be made than if this meter of cloth were sold in England. Even if these products are produced on the same machines, the level of skill that provides excess profits affects. This super-profit, of course, results from all transactions of this kind, and not just those related to fabrics, as a result of which financial-capitalist groups amass enormous fortunes. Huge fortunes such as Elerman's £40m and Yule's £20m are built largely on windfall profits.
This superprofit resulting from the exploitation of colonial peoples is of particular importance for the labor movement. Marx also pointed out that in England the capitalist class, occupying first place in the sale of machine-made products throughout the world, had the opportunity to satisfy the demands of the English working class about best conditions, at least in relation to the top skilled workers. Thus certain layers of skilled mechanics and textile workers in England secured a much higher standard of living than the workers of other countries; and at the same time they tended to link their interests with the capitalist exploitation of the colonies. Lenin showed that this happens in all advanced industrial countries when they reach the imperialist stage, and that these comparatively privileged strata of the working class, especially their leaders, tend to become "opportunists," that is, to come to terms with the capitalists. in the interests of this elite, without taking into account the situation of the broad working masses of their country. This tendency intensifies with the development of imperialism, as a result of which the top of the working-class and socialist movement comes closer and closer to the imperialist policy of the finance-capitalist group of the given country. This became clear during World War I, when the official labor movement everywhere (with the exception of Russia, where the Bolsheviks remained loyal to Marxism) rallied with "their own" imperialists and came out for war, instead of using the opportunity presented by the war to overthrow the capitalist class. .
This "opportunistic" point of view (identification of their own interests with the interests of the ruling class) of the leaders of the parties of the working class in many countries necessitated the creation after the war of 1914-1918 of communist parties loyal to Marxist views and striving to place the movement of the working class under the banner of Marxism.
At the imperialist stage of capitalism, the struggle of the colonies for their liberation becomes more resolute and acquires a wide scope. Conquest and capitalist penetration into a colonial country are destroying the old forms of production and destroying the foundations of life for a huge number of people. The competition of the Lancashire factories deprived the Indian handicraftsmen of their means of subsistence, returned them to agriculture, and increased oppression in the countryside. In the imperialist stage of capitalism, the entire people is subjected to a growing tax burden in connection with the payment of interest on loans and the maintenance of the imperialist administrative apparatus, both civilian and military. As a result of this double oppression in the countryside and the artificial reduction in the prices of colonial goods carried out by the big monopolies, poverty and hunger are growing, which creates the basis for the constant struggle of the peasants. industrial production in the cities also delivered in terrible conditions; workers' organizations are limited and suppressed where possible. The middle classes, especially the intelligentsia, feel the limitations and fetters of imperialist domination. The rising class of capitalists is faced with limitations in the way of its development. Thus a broad movement for independence grows. A similar process "occurs, albeit under different conditions, in each colonial country. Since the Second World War, the liberation movement of the colonial peoples has achieved tremendous success.
Marxists regard this struggle as the inevitable result of capitalist exploitation and believe that it will stop only after the overthrow of the rule of the imperialists. Therefore, they are waging a common struggle with the colonial peoples against a common enemy - the financial-capitalist groups of the imperialist countries.
The First World War, being the result of a struggle between the financial-capitalist groups of the great powers, marked the beginning of what is known as general crisis of capitalism. In 1917, the working class of Russia, under the leadership of the Bolshevik Party led by Lenin, overthrew the rule of the capitalists and landlords and began to build the first socialist state in history. Since that time, the world has been divided into the socialist sector, whose strength and influence is constantly growing, and the capitalist sector, in which all the contradictions of capitalism in its imperialist stage increasingly undermine the political and economic fundamentals capitalist society.
Russia, which entered the path of capitalist development later than the leading countries of the West, belonged to the "second echelon" of capitalist states. But over the post-reform forty years, thanks to high growth rates, primarily in industry, it has traveled a path that took the West centuries. This was facilitated by a number of factors and, above all, the opportunity to use the experience and assistance of developed capitalist countries, as well as the economic policy of the government, aimed at the accelerated development of certain industries and railway construction.
As a result, Russian capitalism entered the imperialist stage almost simultaneously with advanced countries West. It was characterized by all the main features characteristic of this stage, although there were also its own characteristics. In this case, we can refer to the characteristics of the main features of the monopoly stage of development of capitalism in general and Russian capitalism - in particular, proposed by V.I. Lenin, which has not lost its relevance today.
Developing the theory of Marxism on the evolution of the capitalist mode of production and the proletarian revolution, Lenin created the doctrine of imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism and the eve of the socialist revolution. He named five signs of imperialism: 1) the concentration of production and capital, the creation of monopolies; 2) the merging of banking capital with industrial capital, the formation of a financial oligarchy; 3) the export of goods gives way to the export of capital; 4) international unions of capitalists are created, dividing the world among themselves; 5) the territorial division of the world (in terms of economic influence) is over, the struggle for its redistribution begins.
However, later, in substantiating the conclusion about the possibility of the victory of the proletarian revolution in Russia, Lenin came to the conclusion that it could most likely be achieved not in a highly developed, but in a poorly developed capitalist country - "a weak link in the chain of imperialism", which, according to him According to estimates, Russia was: in particular, the concentration of production had not yet reached the required size, banking and industrial monopolies were poorly developed, the export of capital was not significant, and feudal remnants in agriculture remained.
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The culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century experienced a significant upsurge. The development of new capitalist relations, the abolition of serfdom and a social upsurge led to the fact that new trends, new names began to appear in all areas of art. However, representatives of the intelligentsia had a variety of views on the changes taking place in the country, which led to the emergence of three camps - liberals, conservatives and democrats. Each movement had its own characteristics both in political thought and in ways of expressing itself in art. In general, the industrial revolution and the growth of the economy led to the culture becoming more democratic and open to all segments of the population.
Education There was an unprecedented increase in the level of education. Numerous schools began to open, education became tiered - primary school and secondary. The middle schools included numerous gymnasiums and colleges, where students not only received a general education, but also mastered the knowledge necessary for further work. Women's courses appeared. Education remained paid, so libraries and museums began to acquire more and more importance, where those who did not have money for a lyceum or gymnasium could acquire knowledge. The Tretyakov Gallery, the Historical Museum, the Russian Museum and others were created. Science also actively developed, several scientific schools were created, which became the foundation for the most important discoveries. History and philosophy have been greatly developed.
Literature Literature developed as actively as other branches of culture. Numerous literary magazines began to be published throughout the country, in which writers published their works. The most notable can be called "Russian Bulletin", "Domestic Notes", "Russian Thought". The magazines were of different orientations - liberal, democratic and conservative. In addition to literary activity, the authors in them led an active political discussion. The most prominent authors of this period were: L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, I.S. Turgenev and others.
Painting Greater fame was gained by realist artists - E.I. Repin, V.I. Surikov, A.G. Savrasov. Led by I.N. Kramskoy, they formed the “association of the Wanderers”, which set as its main goal the need to “bring art to the masses”. These artists opened small traveling exhibitions in the most remote corners of Russia in order to accustom the people to art.
Music The Mighty Handful group was formed, headed by M.A. Balakirev. It included many prominent composers of that time - M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin. At the same time, the great composer P.I. Chaikovsky. In those years, the first conservatories in Russia were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Music also became a national asset, accessible to all segments of the population.
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The Cause of the First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907 - aggravation of the internal political situation. Social tension was provoked by the remnants of serfdom, the preservation of landownership, the lack of freedoms, the agrarian overpopulation of the center, the national question, the rapid growth of capitalism, and the unresolved peasant and labor issues. Defeat in Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 and the economic crisis of 1900-1908. aggravated the situation.
In 1904, the liberals proposed introducing a constitution in Russia, limiting the autocracy by convening a popular representation. Nicholas 2 made a public statement of disagreement with the introduction of the constitution. The impetus for the beginning of revolutionary events was the strike of the workers of the Putilov factory in St. Petersburg. The strikers put forward economic and political demands.
On January 9, 1905, a peaceful procession was scheduled to the Winter Palace in order to submit a petition addressed to the tsar, which contained demands for democratic changes in Russia. This date is associated with the first stage of the revolution. The demonstrators, led by priest G. Gapon, were met by troops, fire was opened on the participants in the peaceful procession. The cavalry took part in dispersing the procession. As a result, about a thousand people were killed and about 2 thousand were injured. This day is called "Bloody Sunday". The senseless and cruel massacre strengthened the revolutionary mood in the country.
In April 1905, the 3rd congress of the left wing of the RSDLP was held in London. Questions were decided about the nature of the revolution, about the armed uprising, the provisional government, and the attitude towards the peasantry.
The right wing - the Mensheviks, who gathered at a separate conference, defined the revolution as bourgeois in character and driving forces. The task was set to transfer power into the hands of the bourgeoisie and create a parliamentary republic.
The strike (general strike of textile workers) in Ivano-Frankivsk, which began on May 12, 1905, lasted more than two months and gathered 70,000 participants. Both economic and political demands were put forward; The Council of Authorized Deputies was created.
The demands of the workers were partially satisfied. On October 6, 1905, a strike began in Moscow on the Kazan railway, which became all-Russian on October 15. Demands for democratic freedoms and an 8-hour working day have been put forward.
October 17 Nicholas 2 signed Manifesto, which proclaimed political freedoms and promised freedom of elections to the State Duma. Thus began the second stage of the revolution. Highest period.
In June, an uprising began on the battleship of the Black Sea flotilla "Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky." It was held under the slogan: "Down with the autocracy!". However, this uprising was not supported by the crews of other ships of the squadron. "Potemkin" was forced to go into the waters of Romania and surrender there.
In July 1905, at the direction of Nicholas 2, a legislative advisory body was established - the State Duma and a regulation on elections was developed. Workers, women, military personnel, students and youth did not receive the right to participate in the elections.
On November 11-16, an uprising of sailors took place in Sevastopol and on the cruiser Ochakov, led by Lieutenant P.P. Schmidt. The uprising was suppressed, Schmidt and three sailors were shot, more than 300 people were convicted or exiled to hard labor and settlements.
Under the influence of the Social Revolutionaries and liberals in August 1905, the All-Russian Peasant Union was organized, advocating peaceful methods of struggle. However, by the fall, the members of the union announced that they would join the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. The peasants demanded the division of the landlords' lands.
On December 7, 1905, the Moscow Soviet called for a political strike, which developed into an uprising led by Bolsheviks. The government moved troops from St. Petersburg. The fighting took place on the barricades, the last pockets of resistance were crushed in the area of Krasnaya Presnya on December 19th. The organizers and participants of the uprising were arrested and convicted. The same fate befell the uprisings in other regions of Russia.
The reasons for the decline of the revolution (the third stage) were the brutal suppression of the uprising in Moscow and the belief of the people that the Duma was able to solve their problems.
In April 1906, elections were held to the First Duma, as a result of which 2 parties entered it: constitutional democrats and socialist revolutionaries, who advocate the transfer of landowners' lands to peasants and the state. This Duma did not suit the tsar and in July 1906 it ceased to exist.
In the summer of the same year, the uprising of the sailors of Sveaborg and Kronstadt was suppressed. November 9, 1906 With the participation of the Prime Minister Stolypin Decree on the abolition of redemption payments for land was created.
In February 1907, the second elections to the Duma were held. Subsequently, its candidates, according to the tsar, turned out to be even more “revolutionary” than the previous ones, and he not only dissolved the Duma, but also created an electoral law that reduces the number of deputies from among the workers and peasants, essentially carrying out a coup d'état that put an end to the revolution.
The reasons for the defeat of the revolution include the lack of unity of goals between the actions of workers and peasants in organizational moments, the absence of a single political leader of the revolution, as well as the lack of assistance to the people from the army.
The first Russian revolution 1905 - 1907 is defined as bourgeois-democratic, since the tasks of the revolution are the overthrow of the autocracy, the elimination of landownership, the destruction of the estate system, the establishment of a democratic republic.
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After the completion of the revolutionary events in Russia, a period of reform began, in which the Minister of the Interior P.A. took an active part. Stolypin. Considering the preservation of the peasant community as the main reason for the stagnation, he directed all efforts towards its destruction. At the same time, the strengthening of peasant private ownership of land began.
All reforms had to take place with the consent of the autocracy, the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Their ultimate goal was to change the balance of class forces in favor of the bourgeoisie, to join the peasants, who, becoming small landowners, were to serve as a support for autocratic power in the countryside. The most important goal of the reform is the need for Russia's integration into the world economic system.
The main problem facing the rural producer was land hunger in the European part of Russia. The lack of land of the peasantry was explained by the concentration of huge allotments in the hands of the landowners and the very high population density in the center of the country.
In June 1906, Stolypin began to carry out moderate reforms. The decree of November 9, 1906 allowed the peasant to leave the community. He had the right to demand the unification of allotment plots into a single cut or move to a farm. A fund was created from part of the state, imperial and landlord lands for sale to peasants. A specially opened peasant bank issued cash loans for purchases.
The implementation of the decree was entrusted to the provincial and district land management commissions, consisting of officials and peasants, chaired by the governor and the district marshal of the nobility.
On May 29, 1911, a law was issued to expand the rights of land management commissions to form cuts (a plot allocated to a peasant from the land of a community) and farms (a separate peasant estate with land). These measures were supposed to destroy the peasant community and increase the number of small proprietors.
The problem of lack of land was solved by the resettlement of peasants in order to develop the lands of Siberia and Central Asia and the development of handicraft peasant and handicraft farms in the central part of the country. This reduced the peasantry's need for land.
The reform also had political goals. The resettlement of peasants from the central part of the country contributed to the removal of the sharpness of the class confrontation between peasants and landlords. The exit of the peasants from the "community", where the communist ideology reigned, reduced the risk of them being drawn into the revolution.
The Stolypin reform was generally progressive in nature. Having completely buried the remnants of feudalism, it revived bourgeois relations and gave impetus to the productive forces in the countryside. By 1926, 20-35% of the peasants separated from the community, 10% were brought in by farms, the specialization of agriculture increased, the area of sown land, the gross grain harvest and its export increased.
A significant part of the peasantry, which consisted of the middle peasants, was in no hurry to leave the community. The poor left the community, sold their allotments and went to the city. 20% of the peasants who took loans from banks went bankrupt.
Only the kulaks, who had the means to invest in the economy, sought to form farms and cuts. 16% of the settlers, unable to gain a foothold in new places, returned and, having joined the ranks of the proletariat, increased social tension in the country.
In an effort to turn Russia into a prosperous bourgeois state, Stolypin tried to carry out reforms in various areas (the law on civil equality, personal immunity, freedom of religion, the development of local self-government, the transformation of the judiciary and police system, the national and labor question).
Almost all of Stolypin's bills were not adopted by the State Council. His initiatives were not supported by both tsarism and democratic forces. The failure to reform the country predetermined the revolutionary events of 1917.
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1. Indicators of development of individual industries National economy Russia for 1900–1913 testify to a significant increase in industrial and agricultural production, to an increase in the freight turnover of railway transport.
2. Thus, the gross harvest of grain increased from 3.7 billion poods in 1899 to 5 billion poods in 1913. The export of grain during this period increased from 352 million poods to 648 million poods, and the export of all goods increased from 627 million rubles to 1520 million rubles. During the same years, iron smelting increased from 164 million poods to 283 million poods, coal mining increased from 853 million poods to 2214 million poods.
3. Gross industrial output from 1900 to 1908 grew only by 44.9%.
4. A number of good harvests in agriculture, profitable sales of agricultural products in domestic and foreign markets, strengthening purchasing power rural population, the renewal of the fixed capital of industry, the increase in state orders, the growth of urban construction, a significant influx of foreign capital - all this created favorable conditions for a new industrial upsurge, which began in 1909 and continued until the outbreak of the First World War.
5. In the period 1900–1913 industrial output grew by 219%. A large part of this increase falls on the years of industrial boom. The annual increase in production per worker from 1908 to 1913 is 5.1%, and from 1900 to 1908 only 3.1%.
6. The industrial boom in Russia on the eve of the First World War took place with a simultaneous improvement in the situation in agriculture. In the period 1909–1913. (with the exception of 1911) good harvests were gathered, they produced an extra 1.8 billion poods of grain, the cost of which was about 1.5 billion rubles.
7. Urban population growth was almost twice as fast as at the end of the 19th century. The budget of 963 cities reached almost 300 million rubles in 1913 and increased annually by 12.7%. In the period 1909–1913. city building developed rapidly. The construction of new houses, the growth of the tram network, water pipes, sewerage, etc., caused a great need for metals and other building materials.
8. During the pre-war industrial upsurge, fixed capital was largely renewed. About 1 billion rubles were spent on new industrial equipment. During these years, the fixed capital of Russian industry grew faster than in the United States.
9. The average increase in capital in American industry from 1889 to 1915 was 6.5%, while Russian industry during the period from 1885 to 1913 gave an annual increase of 7.2%.
10. In terms of concentration of production, Russian industry occupied one of the first places in the world; in this respect it stood ahead of American industry.
11. A characteristic feature of the industrial boom of 1909–1913. was also a significant increase in free Money on) the money capital market, “as a result of which the working capital of the national economy increased by 2–2.25 billion rubles. On the eve of the war, a powerful system of banks developed in Russia. From 1910 to 1913, the banks' fixed assets more than doubled, from 236.6 million to 561.2 million rubles.
12. The state budget increased from 1.5 billion rubles in 1900 to 3.4 billion rubles in 1913, which indicates an increase in the financial capabilities of tsarist Russia before the war.
13. For the period 1901-1913. the sown area under industrial and special crops (cotton, tobacco, sunflower, beetroot, potatoes, etc.) has grown significantly. The sown area under cotton increased by 111.6%, under sunflower - by 61%, under sugar beet - by 35.5%, under tobacco - by 18.5%, under potatoes - by 15.8%.
14. ... for the period 1900-1913. consumption of agricultural machinery has increased significantly. In 1900, it amounted to only 27.9 million rubles, and in 1913 it was already determined at 109 million rubles, including imported cars for 48.9 million rubles.
15. ... if the production of the engineering industry in 1913 is taken as 100, then subsequent years will give the following figures: 1914 - 120, 1915 - 201.5, 1916 - 264.3.
16. 1915 and 1916 were a period of intense capital construction in the engineering industry.
17. The metalworking industry in Russia, although it grew more slowly than the machine-building industry, nevertheless gave a significant increase in production. If we take its production in 1913 as 100, then in 1914 it was 98.9, in 1915 - 144.7, in 1916 - 155.1.
18. Chemical industry during the war it increased 2.5 times, while the sulfuric acid industry doubled. The benzene industry was created almost anew: the production of toluene, which before the war was 1,000 poods a year, increased in 1916 to 293,000 poods; the production of benzene increased from 1,800 poods in 1913 to 574,000 poods in 1916.
19. Small arms of the Russian army were superior in quality to Western European models. The Russian army was armed with an excellent rifle (model 1891), invented by the Russian officer Mosin. She had machine guns that were not inferior in quality to the best foreign models. During the war, state-owned weapons factories significantly increased their productivity, which indicates the high qualification of personnel and the availability of high-performance equipment at factories that manufactured small arms.
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One of the most significant events of the early 20th century for Russia was war with Japan 1904-1905. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the country has seriously strengthened its presence in the Far East. Military bases appeared on the Liaodong Peninsula, the Trans-Siberian Railway and the Manchurian CER were created. This could not but cause serious concern in the actively developing Japan. But, not only the territorial interests of Russia and Japan caused the conflict. The Russian government believed that a "small victorious war" would improve the situation inside the country. The beginning of the 20th century in Russia was marked by the growth of revolutionary sentiments among the broad masses of the people.
But, due to the lack of modern technical equipment of the army, in many cases - mediocrity and even betrayal of the interests of the country by the tsarist generals, almost complete diplomatic isolation, Russia was dealt a crushing defeat. As a result, Russia had to not only leave Port Arthur, Liaodong, and half of Sakhalin Island, but also give up its interests in Korea. Russia's position in the international arena turned out to be extremely difficult.
At the same time, the international situation continued to heat up. A counterweight tripartite alliance(Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary), the goal of the member countries of which was to achieve world domination, the Entente bloc (Russia, England, France) was created. Despite the existence of serious contradictions between the countries of the Entente, in particular - Russia and England in the Middle East, Russia and France - in the Balkans, the Entente was still a serious deterrent to the actions of the Triple Alliance. An agreement was signed between Russia and Great Britain on the division of spheres of influence in Tibet, Iran, and Afghanistan. It is worth noting that the Entente bloc finally took shape only with the beginning of the First World War.
The foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, which had lost some of its influence, was forcedly cautious. Due to the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the need to stabilize the situation inside the country, Russian diplomats tried to avoid any foreign political conflicts. However, soon Russia had, despite the difficult internal situation, to enter into First World War. (Germany declared war on Russia on July 21, 1914 in response to the general mobilization initiated in the country). By that time, the military reform, begun after the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, was still far from complete.
Complex political and historical events of the late 19th century. led to a variety of forms of cultural development. Based on the best traditions of the previous period, Russian culture acquired new trends that required understanding of moral and social problems. This required the search for new methods and artistic techniques. By the beginning of the 20th century. Russia remained a country with low level literacy (38-39%, according to the 1913 census). The degree of literacy was unequal depending on the regions, men were more literate than women, urban residents were more educated than representatives of the peasantry. The education system included 3 levels - primary (parochial, public schools), secondary (gymnasiums, real schools), higher (universities, institutes). The development of primary education began at the initiative of the democratic part of society. Schools of a new type began to emerge - cultural and educational work courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses. The growing need for specialists led to the development of higher and technical education, the number of higher educational institutions- by 1912 there were 16 universities. Private education became widespread (Shanyavsky University, 1908-1918), 30 higher educational institutions for women were opened. In terms of the number of published literature, Russia has taken the leading place in the world. In 1913, 874 newspapers and 1263 magazines were published. A network of scientific, special, commercial and educational libraries emerged. The largest publishers were A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow. At the turn of the century, traditional and new areas of science are developing. In physics, I.E. Zhukovsky became the founder of hydro- and aerodynamics, K.E. Tsiolkovsky developed theoretical basis aeronautics. Such outstanding scientists as physiologists I.P. Pavlov, I.M. Sechenov, I.I. Mechnikov, botanists K.A. Timiryazev, I.V. Michurin, physicist P.N. Lebedev, the inventor of radio communications A.S. Popov, philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov. V.S. Solovyov P.A. Florensky, historians V.O. Klyuchevsky, P.N. Milyukov. The realist trend was dominant in Russian literature. Continuing the dramatic traditions of their predecessors, outstanding writers worked at the turn of the century: L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Bunin, V.V. Veresaev, A.I. Kuprin, A.M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov. This period became the "Silver Age" of Russian poetry, which acquired new forms and developed in many directions (modernism, symbolism, futurism, aestheticism). A galaxy of talented poets reflected in their works the deep social crisis of Russian society (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, A. Blok, A. Bely, N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, I Severyanin, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak, V. Mayakovsky). Stanislavsky together with V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Moscow Art Theater in 1898 and enriched the theatrical stage with innovative techniques. Their activity marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of stage realism. In a realistic style, they also worked on the stage of the St. Petersburg Drama Theater, created in 1904 by V.F. Komisarzhevskaya. Musical traditions on the stage of the Bolshoi and Mariinsky theaters were continued by representatives of the Russian vocal school: F.I. Chaliapin, L.V. Sobinov, N.V. Nezhdanov. This was the time when Russian composers (S.V. Rachmaninov, I.F. Stravinsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov) created outstanding works. In the visual arts, talented artists - I.E. Repin, V.M. Surikov V.M. Vasnetsov continued to develop realistic traditions. The late “wanderers” S.A. worked fruitfully. Korovin, N.A. Kasatkin landscape painters A.K. Kuindzhi, V.D. Polenov, battle specialist V.V. Vereshchagin.
Architects continued to create in the Art Nouveau style, paying special attention to the functional purpose of the designed buildings (F.O. Shekhtel - Yaroslavl Station, A.V. Shchusev - Kazansky Station, V.M. Vasnetsov - Tretyakov Gallery).
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Main goal, origin: The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party relied on the ideas of K. Marx and F. Engels about the revolutionary party. The immediate task of the Social Democrats was to overthrow the tsarist autocracy and replace it with a democratic republic, the constitution of which would ensure the concentration of all supreme state power in the hands of the Legislative Assembly, composed of representatives of the people, forming one chamber. Provided for universal, equal and direct suffrage. (+ from the book)
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Since the revolution of 1905-1907. did not solve the economic, political and class contradictions in the country, then it was the prerequisite for the February Revolution of 1917. The participation of tsarist Russia in the First World War showed the inability of its economy to carry out military tasks. Many factories stopped their work, the army felt the lack of equipment, weapons, food. The transport system of the country is absolutely not adapted to the military situation, agriculture has lost ground. Economic difficulties increased external debt Russia to enormous proportions. Intending to extract the maximum benefits from the war, the Russian bourgeoisie began to create unions and committees on issues of raw materials, fuel, food, etc. True to the principle of proletarian internationalism, the Bolshevik Party revealed the imperialist nature of the war, which was waged in the interests of the exploiting classes, its predatory, predatory nature. The party sought to direct the discontent of the masses into the mainstream of the revolutionary struggle for the collapse of the autocracy. In August 1915, the Progressive Bloc was formed, which planned to force Nicholas II to abdicate in favor of his brother Mikhail. Thus, the opposition bourgeoisie hoped to prevent the revolution and at the same time preserve the monarchy. But such a scheme did not ensure bourgeois-democratic transformations in the country. The reasons for the February Revolution of 1917 were anti-war sentiments, the plight of workers and peasants, political lack of rights, the decline in the authority of autocratic power and its inability to carry out reforms. The driving force in the struggle was the working class, headed by revolutionary Bolshevik party. The allies of the workers were the peasants, who demanded the redistribution of land. The Bolsheviks explained to the soldiers the goals and objectives of the struggle. The main events of the February Revolution took place rapidly. For several days in Petrograd, Moscow and other cities there was a wave of strikes with the slogans "Down with the tsarist government!", "Down with the war!". On February 25, the political strike became general. Executions, arrests were not able to stop the revolutionary onslaught of the masses. Government troops were put on alert, the city of Petrograd was turned into a military camp. February 26, 1917 was the beginning of the February Revolution. On February 27, the soldiers of the Pavlovsky, Preobrazhensky and Volynsky regiments went over to the side of the workers. This decided the outcome of the struggle: on February 28, the government was overthrown. The outstanding significance of the February Revolution is that it was the first people's revolution in the history of the era of imperialism, which ended in victory. During the February Revolution of 1917, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. Dual power arose in Russia , which was a kind of result of the February Revolution of 1917. On the one hand, the Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies as an organ of people's power, on the other hand, the Provisional Government is an organ of the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, headed by Prince G.E. Lvov. In organizational matters, the bourgeoisie was more prepared for power, but was unable to establish autocracy. The provisional government pursued an anti-people, imperialist policy: the land issue was not resolved, factories remained in the hands of the bourgeoisie, agriculture and industry were in dire need, and there was not enough fuel for rail transport. The dictatorship of the bourgeoisie only deepened the economic and political problems. After the February Revolution, Russia was going through an acute political crisis. Therefore, the need was ripe for the development of the bourgeois-democratic revolution into a socialist one, which was supposed to bring the proletariat to power. One of the consequences of the February revolution was the October revolution under the slogan "All power to the soviets!"
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Russia between two revolutions: March-October 1917 - the growth of a nationwide crisis. The overthrow of the autocracy gave rise to chaos in the country. Dual power: 2.03-5.06.1917; July-October 1917 - dictatorship of the provisional government.
April theses of Lenin Date: April 3, 1917 Lenin returns from exile. On April 4, he delivers a speech to the Bolsheviks about the tasks of the revolution. The speech was called the April Theses. A course has been set for the socialist revolution.
The situation in the country before June 1917: May - 1st government crisis. There were clashes between supporters of the Petrosoviet and the Provisional Government. The Provisional Government invited the Petrograd Soviet to become part of it. The first coalition government is formed.
Position in the city, countryside, army: city: production is falling, unemployment is growing, from 17.06 a card system is introduced; countryside: agrarian unrest spreads; army: the movement against the war is growing. In the country as a whole, chaos and fatigue from unrest are growing. Unsuccessful offensive at the front. First All-Russian Congress of Soviets (3-24.06). Questions about the war and about the attitude towards the provisional government were resolved. The struggle of two democracies: bourgeois and socialist - chaos intensifies in the country and gradually a dictatorship is formed in public opinion.
End of dual power: 04.07, due to failures at the front, an unsanctioned demonstration took place in Petrograd. The troops used weapons (700 people were killed and wounded). The dictatorship of the provisional government is established. Left-wing newspapers are closed, a number of Bolsheviks are arrested, and the death penalty is introduced at the front. On July 8, the 2nd coalition government is formed, headed by Kerensky. Kerensky has little control over the situation, and the Cadets are looking for a candidate for dictatorship. They find him in the face of Kornilov. On July 26-August 3, the 6th Congress of the RSDLP took place, which headed for an armed uprising. August 3-5 - The 2nd congress of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie takes a course towards firm power.
Kornilov rebellion: an attempted military coup. 12.08 Kornilov speaks in Moscow at a state meeting and proclaims a course towards dictatorship. 26.08 Kornilov presents an ultimatum to Kerensky. He demands that the fullness of military and civil power be transferred into his hands. August 27 Kornilov addresses the Russian people with a manifesto. Kerensky removes Kornilov from the post of commander and outlaws him. The Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks take the side of the provisional government. The Bolsheviks also oppose Kornilov. The Petrograd Soviet creates workers' squads. 40,000 soldiers and workers were sent against Kornilov. The rebellion was crushed within a week. Kornilov is arrested.
Culmination of the national crisis (September-October 1917): 1-25.09 in Russia was controlled by a directory (organ government controlled, consisting of 5 directors headed by Kerensky). The purpose of the creation is to ensure law and order and political stability (has not been achieved). September 25 - 3rd coalition government headed by Kerensky. 1.09 Russia is officially proclaimed a republic. 14.09 - a democratic meeting is convened from representatives of parties, city dumas, councils and trade unions, which creates a pre-parliament or the Provisional Council of the Republic. Political forces and classes are sharply polarized, so the fate of democracy was sealed. The government's point of view: the situation is extremely difficult, unrest and anarchy are growing. Right point of view: the last act of the all-Russian tragedy begins; power passed into the hands of the extreme left element of the revolution - the Bolsheviks. Leftist point of view: the crisis is ripe, the whole future of the Russian revolution is at stake.
Objective state of affairs: economic degradation, devastation, reduction in production by 36%, unemployment, financial crisis, the strike movement is expanding, agrarian unrest, unrest at the front, there is a crisis of democracy, foreign loans unable to change the situation. The government shows complete impotence.
Conclusion: the country loses control, plunges into an abyss of anarchy and chaos. Russia is on the brink of a national catastrophe.
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The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917 (November 7-8, New Style). This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.
The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:
The consignment Bolsheviks made a huge impact on the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the October 25, 1917 revolution, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They capture the Winter Palace and arrest the provisional government. On the evening of October 25, at the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, they announced that power was passing to the 2nd Congress of Soviets, and in the localities - to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.26 October, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Council of People's Commissars", which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin(People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of the oppressed. As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, plants, mines - into the hands of the workers. As a result of the October Revolution, Civil War, because of which millions of people died, and emigration to other countries began. The Great October Revolution influenced the subsequent course of events in world history.
The civil war began in October 1917 and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922. During this time, on the territory of Russia, various social classes and groups resolved the contradictions that arose between them by armed methods.
The main reasons for the start of the civil war include:
In the spring of 1918 British, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The Japanese invaded the Far East, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - intervention began. On May 25, there was an uprising of the 45,000-strong Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. In the conditions of the decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time. Supported by the Social Revolutionaries and the White Guards, the corps put forward demands for the overthrow of the Bolsheviks and the convening of the Constituent Assembly. In the South, the Volunteer Army of General A.I. Denikin, who defeated the Soviets in the North Caucasus. Troops P.N. Krasnov approached Tsaritsyn, in the Urals the Cossacks of General A.A. Dutov captured Orenburg. In November-December 1918, an English landing landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army. By the fall of 1918, the Red Army had liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.
The revolution in Germany had a significant impact on the course of the civil war. Admitting defeat in World War I, Germany agreed to annul Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states. Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the Whites. By April 1919, the Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven into the depths of Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920. In the summer of 1919, General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved towards Moscow and approached Tula. On the Southern Front, the troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian arrows. In the spring of 1920, near Novorossiysk, the "Reds" defeated the White Guards. In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. fought against the Soviets. Yudenich. In the spring and autumn of 1919, they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd. In April 1920, a conflict between Soviet Russia and Poland began. In May 1920, the Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve a final victory. Recognizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 the parties signed a peace treaty. The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920, the Far Eastern Republic was formed, by 1922 it was finally liberated from the Japanese.
Reasons for victory Bolsheviks:
War communism (the policy of war communism) is the name of the internal policy of Soviet Russia, carried out during the Civil War of 1918-1921.
The essence of war communism was to prepare the country for a new, communist society, to which the new authorities were oriented. War communism was characterized by such features as:
It was on the basis of these principles that it was planned to build a new state where there are no rich and poor, where everyone is equal and everyone receives exactly as much as is necessary for a normal life. Scholars believe that the introduction new policy was necessary in order not only to survive in the conditions of the Civil War, but also to quickly rebuild the country into a new type of society.
Signs of this or that phenomenon of social life are of great importance for understanding this or that phenomenon of social life. Capitalism is a system of economic relations based on the dominance of private ownership, freedom of enterprise and focused on making a profit. It should immediately be noted that this concept is the name only ideal model, since in no state of the world there is such a way of life in its pure form.
Analyze Features economic development countries in a historical perspective help its signs. Capitalism is a term that has been actively used since the second half of the 19th century. For the first time it began to be used in France, then German and English authors introduced it into scientific circulation.
An interesting fact is that at first it had a negative meaning. Scientists and writers put into this word a negative attitude towards the dominance of finance, which was observed in the developed European countries of the middle of this century. Representatives of socialism (Marx, Lenin and others) used this concept especially actively.
Their signs help to characterize the features of the development of the economy and trade. Capitalism is a system based on the free functioning of the market, which serves as an arena for confrontation between the working class and the owners. The former seek to sell their power at a higher price, the latter seek to buy it cheaper. In addition, it is the market that is the main condition for trade, without which it is impossible to imagine the existence of the capitalist structure. The second important feature of the system is the concentration of the means of production in the hands of the upper classes and the retention of labor power by the proletariat.
Between these groups there is a constant struggle for labor and wages. This leads to class struggle, which in a number of states led to revolutions. However, practice shows that the capitalist way of life is most acceptable for the normal functioning of states, and therefore, from the beginning of its inception, it quickly spread around the world, capturing almost all spheres of society, including politics and culture. The above features of the system were highlighted by the famous scientist Marx, who devoted one of his most fundamental monographs to this issue.
Its signs help to understand the reasons for the emergence of this new way of life in Western European history. Capitalism is not only a special but also a specific way of organizing society. That is how the famous German scientist and sociologist Weber considered this stage of economic history.
Unlike Marx, he believed that this system was unique to Western European countries. In his opinion, it arose in those states where Protestantism was established, which developed in society the cult of labor discipline, a high degree of social organization, as well as the desire for profit and income. He singled out the following signs development of capitalism: competition between producers, the presence of a dynamic market, the active use of capital in entrepreneurial activity striving for maximum profit. And if Marx believed that this way of life not only influences, but also determines the policy of countries, then Weber contrasted these two social spheres, although he recognized that they are closely related to each other.
The main features of capitalism became the object of study of the famous political scientist and sociologist Schumpeter. He singled out the following features of this system: a dynamic market, entrepreneurship and the dominance of private property. However, unlike these authors, the economist singled out such an important component of capitalist production as the introduction of innovations. In his opinion, it is the introduction of innovations that stimulates the rapid development of the economies of countries.
At the same time, Schumpeter attached great importance to lending, which provides entrepreneurs with the opportunity to introduce modern technologies and thereby increase production efficiency. The scientist believed that this way of life ensured the material well-being of society and the personal freedom of citizens, but he saw the future of the system in a pessimistic light, believing that over time it would exhaust itself.
One of the main prerequisites for the transition from the feudal mode of production to the capitalist one was the departure from the old guild system and the transition to the division of labor. It is in this important change that the answer to the question of why the emergence of manufactures is considered a sign of the birth of capitalism should be sought.
After all, the main condition for the existence and normal functioning of the market is the widespread use of hired labor. In the 14th century, in many European cities, manufacturers abandoned the traditional recruitment of apprentices and began to attract people who specialized in a particular craft to their workshops. So there was that, according to Marx's definition, is the main feature of the capitalist way of life.
In Western European countries, there were various types of manufactories, which indicates the rapid development and introduction of a new method of production. An analysis of the problem under consideration (why the emergence of manufactories is considered a sign of the birth of capitalism) allows us to understand the development of the economy. The owners of scattered enterprises distributed raw materials to workers at home, then, already processed, it went to a professional artisan, who, having made yarn, gave the material to the next manufacturer. So the work was carried out by a number of workers who passed the produced goods along the chain. In a centralized manufactory, people worked in the same room, using technology. These different types of enterprises prove the high rate of development of capitalist production on the mainland.
Signs of the birth of capitalism are associated with the characteristics of the European economy, where the transition to trade began very early thanks to the development of cities and the formation of markets. A new impetus to the development of the capitalist mode of production was the introduction of new technologies. This brought the economy to a fundamentally new level. The use of machines in factories allowed entrepreneurs to increase sales of products. Achievements in the field of science have led to the fact that the creation of the gross product has become cheaper, since machines were now used instead of workers in enterprises.
Of great importance was the invention of the steam engine, electricity, and the construction of railways. The discovery and development of new mineral deposits led to the rapid development of heavy industry and metallurgy. These changes completely changed the urban appearance of the Western European countries, as well as Russia, where, after the abolition of serfdom, the rapid development of industry began. So, the signs of capitalism in the 19th century were determined by the introduction of the achievements of science into production.
During the first stage of the development of capitalism, production organizations were single and medium in size. The scale of their production was not wide, and therefore entrepreneurs could single-handedly run their own business. In the 19th century, the system entered a new phase of development. The volume of production increased sharply, factories expanded, which led to the need to combine the efforts of entrepreneurs. Based on the foregoing, one can single out the signs of monopoly capitalism: the concentration of production, the reduction in the number of factories, the emergence of large, capital-intensive enterprises.
At the turn of the century, the main role was played by heavy industry: mechanical engineering, metalworking, oil production and others. As a rule, consolidation took place within the framework of any one industry, in which such associations as cartels and syndicates arose. The first concept should be understood as an agreement between several independent enterprises that agree on the price of goods, markets and quotas. The second term means a higher degree of monopolization, in which firms, while maintaining legal and economic independence, organize a single office for the sale of their products.
The signs of monopoly capitalism make it possible to understand what the features of the new stage in the development of this system were. Trusts and concerns are considered the highest form of association of plants, factories and firms. The first organizations jointly carry out not only sales, but also production, and are also subject to a single management, but at the same time retain financial independence. Trusts are created in any one industry and immediately occupy a leading position. Concerns are considered the most developed form of association. They are formed in related industries and have common finances.
Merger of capital provides faster and more efficient integration, in contrast to the above forms. Signs of capitalism in the 20th century testify to the development of this system due to its entry into a new, higher phase of its development, which gave scientists the opportunity to talk about the onset of a phase of imperialism, which is characterized by a merger of banks and production.
Capitalism- a socio-economic formation based on private ownership of the means of production and exploitation of wage labor by capital, replaces feudalism, precedes - the first phase.
Term capitalist in meaning capital owner appeared earlier than the term capitalism, as early as the middle of the 17th century. Term capitalism first used in 1854 in the novel The Newcomes. Use the term in modern meaning first started and. In the work of Karl Marx "Capital" the word is used only twice; instead, Marx uses the terms "capitalist system", "capitalist mode of production", "capitalist", which occur in the text more than 2600 times.
The aim of capitalist production is the appropriation of the surplus value created by the labor of hired workers. As the relations of capitalist exploitation become the dominant type of production relations and the pre-capitalist forms of the superstructure are replaced by bourgeois political, legal, ideological and other social institutions, capitalism turns into a socio-economic formation that includes the capitalist mode of production and its corresponding superstructure. In its development, capitalism goes through several stages, but its most character traits essentially remain unchanged. Capitalism is characterized by antagonistic contradictions. The main contradiction of capitalism between the social character of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation of its results gives rise to anarchy of production, unemployment, economic crises, the irreconcilable struggle between the main classes of capitalist society - and the bourgeoisie - and determines the historical doom of the capitalist system.
The emergence of capitalism was prepared by the social division of labor and the development of a commodity economy in the womb of feudalism. In the process of the emergence of capitalism, at one pole of society a class of capitalists was formed, concentrating money capital and means of production in their hands, and at the other, a mass of people deprived of the means of production and therefore forced to sell their labor power to the capitalists.
Developed capitalism was preceded by a period of so-called primitive accumulation of capital, the essence of which was to rob peasants, small artisans and seize colonies. The transformation of labor power into a commodity and the means of production into capital signified the transition from simple commodity production to capitalist production. The primitive accumulation of capital was at the same time a process of rapid expansion of the domestic market. Peasants and artisans, who previously existed on their own farms, turned into hired workers and were forced to live by selling their labor power, buying the necessary consumer goods. The means of production, which were concentrated in the hands of a minority, turned into capital. An internal market for the means of production necessary for the resumption and expansion of production was created. The great geographical discoveries and the capture of colonies provided the emerging European bourgeoisie with new sources of capital accumulation and led to the growth of international economic ties. The development of commodity production and exchange, accompanied by the differentiation of commodity producers, served as the basis for the further development of capitalism. The fragmented commodity production could no longer satisfy the growing demand for goods.
The starting point of capitalist production was simple capitalist cooperation, that is, the joint labor of many people performing individual production operations under the control of the capitalist. The source of cheap labor for the first capitalist entrepreneurs was the mass ruin of artisans and peasants as a result of property differentiation, as well as land "enclosures", the adoption of laws on the poor, ruinous taxes, and other measures of non-economic coercion. The gradual strengthening of the economic and political positions of the bourgeoisie prepared the conditions for bourgeois revolutions in a number of countries. Western Europe: in the Netherlands at the end of the 16th century, in Great Britain in the middle of the 17th century, in France at the end of the 18th century, in a number of other European countries - in the middle of the 19th century. Bourgeois revolutions, having carried out a revolution in the political superstructure, accelerated the process of replacing feudal production relations with capitalist ones, cleared the ground for the capitalist system that had matured in the depths of feudalism, for the replacement of feudal property with capitalist property.
A major step in the development of the productive forces of bourgeois society was made with the advent of manufactory in the middle of the 16th century. However, by the middle of the 18th century, the further development of capitalism in the advanced bourgeois countries of Western Europe ran into the narrowness of its technical base. The need has ripened for a transition to large-scale factory production using machines. The transition from manufactory to the factory system was carried out during the industrial revolution, which began in Great Britain in the 2nd half of the 18th century and ended by the middle of the 19th century. The invention of the steam engine led to a number of machines. The growing demand for machines and mechanisms led to a change in the technical base of mechanical engineering and a transition to the production of machines by machines. The emergence of the factory system meant the establishment of capitalism as the dominant mode of production, the creation of a corresponding material and technical base. The transition to the machine stage of production contributed to the development of productive forces, the emergence of new industries and the involvement of new resources in the economic circulation, rapid growth population of cities and activation of foreign economic relations. It was accompanied by a further intensification of the exploitation of wage-workers: a wider use of female and child labor, a lengthening of the working day, an intensification of labor, the transformation of the worker into an appendage of the machine, an increase in unemployment, a deepening of the opposition between mental and physical labor and the opposition between town and country. The basic laws governing the development of capitalism are characteristic of all countries. However, different countries had their own characteristics of its genesis, which were determined by the specific historical conditions of each of these countries.
The classical path of development of capitalism - the primitive accumulation of capital, simple cooperation, manufactory production, the capitalist factory - is characteristic of a small number of Western European countries, mainly Great Britain and the Netherlands. In Great Britain, earlier than in other countries, the industrial revolution was completed, the factory system of industry arose, and the advantages and contradictions of the new, capitalist mode of production were fully manifested. Extremely fast compared to others European countries the growth of industrial production was accompanied by the proletarianization of a significant part of the population, the deepening of social conflicts, and regularly repeated since 1825 cyclical crises of overproduction. Great Britain became the classical country of bourgeois parliamentarianism and at the same time the birthplace of the modern labor movement. By the middle of the 19th century, it had achieved world industrial, commercial and financial hegemony and was the country where capitalism reached its highest development. It is no coincidence that theoretical analysis of the capitalist mode of production, given, was based mainly on English material. noted that the most important distinguishing features of English capitalism in the second half of the 19th century. had "huge colonial possessions and a monopoly position in the world market"
The formation of capitalist relations in France - the largest Western European power of the era of absolutism - was slower than in Great Britain and the Netherlands. This was due mainly to the stability of the absolutist state, the relative strength of the social positions of the nobility and the small peasant economy. The landlessness of the peasants took place not by means of "enclosures", but through tax system. An important role in the formation of the bourgeois class was played by the tax farming system and public debt, and later the protectionist policy of the government in relation to the emerging manufacturing industry. The bourgeois revolution took place in France almost a century and a half later than in Great Britain, and the process of primitive accumulation stretched over three centuries. The Great French Revolution, having radically eliminated the feudal absolutist system that hindered the growth of capitalism, at the same time led to the emergence of a stable system of small peasant landownership, which left its mark on the entire further development of capitalist production relations in the country. The widespread introduction of machines began in France only in the 30s of the 19th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, it turned into an industrialized state. Main Feature French capitalism of those years was its usurious nature. The growth of loan capital, based on the exploitation of colonies and profitable credit operations abroad, turned France into a rentier country.
The United States entered the path of capitalist development later than Great Britain, but by the end of the 19th century they were among the advanced capitalist countries. Feudalism as a comprehensive economic system did not exist in the USA. A major role in the development of American capitalism was played by the displacement of the indigenous population into reservations and the development by farmers of the vacated lands in the west of the country. This process determined the so-called American path of development of capitalism in agriculture, the basis of which was the growth of capitalist farming. The rapid development of American capitalism after the Civil War of 1861-65 led to the fact that by 1894 the United States took first place in the world in terms of industrial output.
In Germany, the liquidation of the system of serfdom was carried out "from above". The redemption of feudal duties, on the one hand, led to the mass proletarianization of the population, and on the other hand, gave the landlords the capital necessary to turn the Junker estates into large capitalist farms using wage labor. This created the prerequisites for the so-called Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture. The unification of the German states into a single customs union and the bourgeois Revolution of 1848-49 accelerated the development of industrial capital. An exceptional role in the industrial upsurge in the middle of the 19th century in Germany was played by railways which contributed to the economic and political unification of the country and the rapid growth of heavy industry. The political unification of Germany and the military indemnity received by it after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 became a powerful stimulus for the further development of capitalism. In the 70s of the 19th century, a process of rapid creation of new industries and re-equipment of old ones on the basis of the latest achievements of science and technology took place. Taking advantage of the technical achievements of Great Britain and other countries, Germany was able to catch up with France in terms of economic development by 1870, and by the end of the 19th century, come closer to Great Britain.
In the East, capitalism was most developed in Japan, where, as in Western European countries, it arose on the basis of the disintegration of feudalism. Within three decades after the bourgeois revolution of 1867-68, Japan turned into one of the industrial capitalist powers.
Comprehensive analysis of capitalism and its specific forms economic structure at the pre-monopoly stage, it was given by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in a number of works and, above all, in Capital, where it is revealed economic law movements of capitalism. The doctrine of surplus value - the cornerstone of Marxist political economy - revealed the secret of capitalist exploitation. The appropriation of surplus value by capitalists occurs because the means of production and means of subsistence are owned by a small class of capitalists. The worker, in order to live, is forced to sell his labor power. By his labor he creates more value than his labour-power is worth. Surplus value is appropriated by capitalists and serves as a source of their enrichment and further growth of capital. The reproduction of capital is at the same time the reproduction of capitalist production relations based on the exploitation of the labor of others.
The pursuit of profit, which is a modified form of surplus value, determines the entire movement of the capitalist mode of production, including the expansion of production, the development of technology, and the increased exploitation of workers. At the stage of pre-monopoly capitalism, the competition of non-cooperative fragmented commodity producers is replaced by capitalist competition, which leads to the formation of an average rate of profit, that is, equal profit on equal capital. The value of goods produced takes a modified form of the price of production, including the cost of production and the average profit. The process of profit averaging is carried out in the course of intra-industry and inter-industry competition, through the mechanism of market prices and the flow of capital from one industry to another, through the intensification of the competitive struggle between capitalists.
Improving technology at individual enterprises, using the achievements of science, developing the means of transport and communications, improving the organization of production and commodity exchange, the capitalists spontaneously develop the social productive forces. The concentration and centralization of capital contribute to the emergence of large enterprises, where thousands of workers are concentrated, and lead to the growing socialization of production. However, huge, ever-increasing wealth is appropriated by individual capitalists, which leads to a deepening of the basic contradiction of capitalism. The deeper the process of capitalist socialization, the wider the gap between the direct producers and the means of production owned by private capitalists. The contradiction between the social character of production and capitalist appropriation takes the form of an antagonism between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. It also manifests itself in the contradiction between production and consumption. The contradictions of the capitalist mode of production are most acutely manifested in periodically recurring economic crises. There are two interpretations of their cause. One is related to the general. There is also an opposite opinion, that the profit of the capitalist is so high that the workers do not have enough purchasing power to buy all the goods. Being an objective form of forcible overcoming of the contradictions of capitalism, economic crises do not resolve them, but lead to further deepening and aggravation, which indicates the inevitability of the death of capitalism. Thus, capitalism itself creates the objective prerequisites for a new system based on social ownership of the means of production.
The antagonistic contradictions and the historical doom of capitalism are reflected in the sphere of the superstructure of bourgeois society. The bourgeois state, in whatever form it may exist, always remains an instrument of the class rule of the bourgeoisie, an organ for the suppression of the working masses. Bourgeois democracy is limited and formal. In addition to the two main classes of bourgeois society (bourgeoisie and ), capitalism retains the classes inherited from feudalism: the peasantry and landowners. With the development of industry, science and technology, and culture in capitalist society, social layer intelligentsia - persons of mental labor. The main trend in the development of the class structure of capitalist society is the polarization of society into two main classes as a result of the erosion of the peasantry and intermediate strata. The main class contradiction of capitalism is the contradiction between the workers and the bourgeoisie, which is expressed in the sharp class struggle between them. In the course of this struggle, a revolutionary ideology is developed, political parties of the working class are created, and the subjective prerequisites for a socialist revolution are prepared.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, capitalism entered the highest and last stage of its development - imperialism, monopoly capitalism. Free competition at a certain stage led to such a high level of concentration and centralization of capital, which naturally led to the emergence of monopolies. They define the essence of imperialism. Denying free competition in certain industries, monopolies do not eliminate competition as such, "... but exist above it and next to it, thereby giving rise to a number of especially sharp and steep contradictions, frictions, conflicts." The scientific theory of monopoly capitalism was developed by V.I. Lenin in his work “Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism”. He defined imperialism as "... capitalism at that stage of development when the dominance of monopolies and finance capital has taken shape, the export of capital has acquired outstanding significance, the division of the world by international trusts has begun, and the division of the entire territory of the earth by the largest capitalist countries has ended." At the monopoly stage of capitalism, the exploitation of labor by financial capital leads to a redistribution in favor of the monopolies of a part of the total surplus value that falls to the share of the non-monopoly bourgeoisie and the necessary product of wage workers through the mechanism of monopoly prices. There are certain shifts in the class structure of society. The dominance of finance capital is personified in the financial oligarchy, the big monopoly bourgeoisie, which subdues to its control the vast majority of the national wealth of the capitalist countries. Under the conditions of state-monopoly capitalism, the top of the big bourgeoisie, which exerts a decisive influence on economic policy bourgeois state. The economic and political weight of the non-monopoly middle and petty bourgeoisie is decreasing. Substantial changes are taking place in the composition and size of the working class. In all developed capitalist countries, with the growth of the entire active population over 70 years of the 20th century by 91%, the number of wage earners increased almost 3 times, and their share in the total number of employed increased over the same period from 53.3 to 79.5%. In the conditions of modern technological progress, with the expansion of the service sector and the growth of the bureaucratic state apparatus, the number and specific gravity employees, approaching in their social position with the industrial proletariat. Under the leadership of the working class, the most revolutionary forces of capitalist society, all the working classes and social strata, are waging a struggle against the oppression of the monopolies.
In the process of its development, monopoly capitalism develops into state-monopoly capitalism, characterized by the merging of the financial oligarchy with the bureaucratic elite, the strengthening of the role of the state in all areas of public life, the growth of the public sector in the economy and the intensification of policies aimed at mitigating the socio-economic contradictions of capitalism. Imperialism, especially at the state-monopoly stage, means a deep crisis of bourgeois democracy, an intensification of reactionary tendencies and the role of violence in domestic and foreign policy. It is inseparable from the growth of militarism and military spending, the arms race and the tendency to unleash aggressive wars.
Imperialism extremely sharpens the basic contradiction of capitalism and all the contradictions of the bourgeois system based on it, which can only be resolved by a socialist revolution. V. I. Lenin gave a deep analysis of the law of uneven economic and political development of capitalism in the era of imperialism and came to the conclusion that the victory of the socialist revolution was possible initially in one single capitalist country.
As a natural stage in the historical development of society, capitalism played a progressive role in its time. He destroyed the patriarchal and feudal relations between people, based on personal dependence, and replaced them monetary relations. Capitalism created large cities, sharply increased urban population at the expense of agriculture, it destroyed feudal fragmentation, which led to the formation of bourgeois nations and centralized states, and raised the productivity of social labor to a higher level. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote:
“The bourgeoisie, in less than a hundred years of its class rule, has created more numerous and more grandiose productive forces than all previous generations put together. Conquest of the forces of nature machine production, the use of chemistry in industry and agriculture, the shipping industry, railways, the electric telegraph, the development of whole parts of the world for agriculture, the adaptation of rivers for navigation, whole masses of the population, as if summoned from underground - which of the previous centuries could suspect that such the productive forces lie dormant in the depths of social labor!”
Since then, the development of the productive forces, despite the unevenness and periodic crises, has continued at an even more accelerated pace. The capitalism of the 20th century was able to put many achievements of the modern scientific and technological revolution at its service: atomic energy, electronics, automation, jet technology, chemical synthesis, and so on. But social progress under capitalism is carried out at the price of a sharp aggravation of social contradictions, the waste of productive forces, and the suffering of the masses of the people all over the globe. The era of primitive accumulation and capitalist "development" of the outskirts of the world was accompanied by the destruction of entire tribes and nationalities. Colonialism, which served as a source of enrichment for the imperialist bourgeoisie and the so-called labor aristocracy in the metropolitan countries, led to a prolonged stagnation of the productive forces in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, and contributed to the preservation of pre-capitalist production relations in them. Capitalism used the progress of science and technology to create destructive means of mass destruction. He is responsible for the huge human and material losses in the increasingly destructive wars. In the two world wars unleashed by imperialism alone, more than 60 million people died and 110 million were wounded or disabled. At the stage of imperialism, economic crises became even more acute.
Capitalism cannot cope with the productive forces it has created, which have outgrown the capitalist ones. relations of production, which became the fetters of their further unhindered growth. In the depths of bourgeois society, in the course of the development of capitalist production, objective material prerequisites for the transition to socialism have been created. Under capitalism, the working class grows, unites and organizes, which, in alliance with the peasantry, at the head of all the working people, constitutes a mighty social force capable of overthrowing the obsolete capitalist system and replacing it with socialism.
Bourgeois ideologists, with the help of apologetic theories, are trying to assert that modern capitalism is a system devoid of class antagonisms, that in highly developed capitalist countries there are allegedly no factors that give rise to a social revolution at all. However, reality shatters such theories, more and more exposing the irreconcilable contradictions of capitalism.
